Confucianism: the story on HearLore

Confucianism

Confucius, the man who would become the central figure of a system spanning over two millennia, did not claim to be a prophet or a god. Born in 551 BC during the collapse of the Zhou dynasty, he appeared in an era of political reconfiguration and spiritual questioning where traditional values were being abandoned. He saw an opportunity to reinforce values of compassion and tradition into a society he believed had lost its perfect moral order. Confucius conceived these qualities as the foundation needed to restore socio-political harmony, yet he did not preach a path to an afterlife or a personal deity. Instead, he taught that the sacred is to be found within the ordinary activities of human life, and especially in human relationships. This view deconstructs the sacred-profane dichotomy, asserting that human relationships are sacred because they are the expression of our moral nature, which has a transcendent anchorage in Heaven. The American philosopher Herbert Fingarette captured this essential feature of Confucianism in the title of his 1972 book, Confucius: The Secular as Sacred. To assume a dualistic relationship between sacred and profane and to use this as a criterion of religion is to beg the question of whether Confucianism can count as a religious tradition. Confucius regarded himself as a transmitter of cultural values from the preceding Xia, Shang, and Western Zhou dynasties, rather than an inventor of new dogmas. He wrote in the Analects that Heaven gave him life and watched and judged him, yet he did not interpret this as a personal god comparable to that of the Abrahamic faiths. Rather, Heaven is similar to what Taoists meant by the way things are, or the regularities of the world, which Stephan Feuchtwang equates with the ancient Greek concept of physis, nature as the generation and regenerations of things and of the moral order. Confucius used the term Heaven in a mystical way, suggesting that a person may know the movements of Heaven, providing a sense of having a special place in the universe. He believed that even though Heaven does not speak in words, it constantly does through the rhythms of nature, communicating how human beings ought to live and act to those who have learnt to carefully listen to it. This worldview presents a vision where human relationships and social order are manifestations of sacred moral principles, integrating philosophy, ethics, and social governance with a core focus on virtue, social harmony, and familial responsibility.

The Five Constants and The Way of Heaven

At the heart of this ethical system lie five virtues known as the Five Constants, which were elaborated by Confucian scholars out of the inherited tradition during the Han dynasty. These virtues are Ren, meaning benevolence or humaneness; Yi, meaning righteousness or justice; Li, meaning propriety or rites; Zhi, meaning wisdom or knowledge; and Xin, meaning sincerity or faithfulness. Ren is the highest Confucian virtue, encompassing benevolence, trustworthiness, courage, compassion, empathy, and reciprocity. It is considered the essence of the human being endowed by Heaven, and the means by which someone may act according to the principle of Heaven and become one with it. Ren is expressed through interpersonal relationships and can be cultivated through the observance of proper Li. Li, or ritual, guides people's behaviors in nurturing and expressing Ren. It regulates the fundamental human relationships between parents and kids, spouses, siblings, friends, and sets the foundation to a harmonious society. Yan Hui, Confucius's most outstanding student, once asked his master to describe the criteria of Ren. Confucius replied that if contrary to ritual, one should not look, listen, speak, or act. Li also means religious rites which establish relations between humanity and the gods. According to Stephan Feuchtwang, rites are conceived as what makes the invisible visible, making possible for humans to cultivate the underlying order of nature. Correctly performed rituals move society in alignment with earthly and heavenly forces, establishing the harmony of the three realms: Heaven, Earth, and humanity. This practice is defined as centering, and among all things of creation, humans themselves are central because they have the ability to cultivate and center natural forces. Confucius includes in his discussions of Li such diverse topics as learning, tea drinking, titles, mourning, and governance. Xunzi cites songs and laughter, weeping and lamentation, rice and millet, fish and meat, the wearing of ceremonial caps, embroidered robes, or of fasting clothes and mourning clothes, spacious rooms and secluded halls, soft mats, couches and benches as vital parts of the fabric of Li. Confucius envisioned proper government being guided by the principles of Li, and some Confucians proposed that all human beings may pursue perfection by learning and practicing Li. Overall, Confucians believe that governments should place more emphasis on Li and rely much less on penal punishment when they govern. The Way of Heaven involves lifelong and sincere devotion to traditional cultural forms and a state of spontaneous harmony between individual inclinations and the sacred Way. This unity of the individual self and Heaven is the principle or way of Heaven, which is the order of the world and the source of divine authority. It is monistic, meaning that it is singular and indivisible. Individuals may realize their humanity and become one with Heaven through the contemplation of such order. This transformation of the self is extended to family and society to create a harmonious community.

When was Confucius born and during which dynasty did he live?

Confucius was born in 551 BC during the collapse of the Zhou dynasty. He appeared in an era of political reconfiguration and spiritual questioning where traditional values were being abandoned.

What are the Five Constants in Confucianism and how are they defined?

The Five Constants are Ren meaning benevolence or humaneness, Yi meaning righteousness or justice, Li meaning propriety or rites, Zhi meaning wisdom or knowledge, and Xin meaning sincerity or faithfulness. Ren is the highest Confucian virtue encompassing benevolence, trustworthiness, courage, compassion, empathy, and reciprocity.

Who was the first spiritual leader of the Holy Confucian Church established in 2015?

The first spiritual leader of the Holy Confucian Church is the scholar Jiang Qing. He is the founder and manager of the Yangming Confucian Abode, a Confucian academy in Guiyang, Guizhou.

When did the Chinese imperial examination system start and when was it abolished?

The Chinese imperial examination system started in the Sui dynasty. The abolition of the imperial examination system in 1905 marked the decline of state-endorsed Confucianism.

What is the Mandate of Heaven and how does it relate to rulers in Confucianism?

The Mandate of Heaven is a vital concept in imperial-era political theory where emperors of China were considered agents of Heaven. According to the Confucian classics, the Mandate is not fated or absolute, it reacts to the wishes and interests of the people.

The Gentleman and The Mandate of Heaven

Confucius redefined the term Junzi, which literally means son of a lord, to describe a person of noble character and ethical virtue. Originally signifying the younger, non-inheriting, offspring of a noble, it became, in Confucius's work, an epithet having much the same meaning and evolution as the English gentleman. A virtuous commoner who cultivates his qualities may be a gentleman, while a shameless son of the king is only a petty person. That Confucius admitted students of different classes as disciples is a clear demonstration that he fought against the feudal structures that defined pre-imperial Chinese society. The Junzi is the ideal personality, though it is very hard to become one of them. There are many characteristics of the Junzi: he may live in poverty, he does more and speaks less, he is loyal, obedient and knowledgeable. The Junzi disciplines himself, and Ren is fundamental to becoming a Junzi. As the potential leader of a nation, a son of the ruler is raised to have a superior ethical and moral position while gaining inner peace through his virtue. The Junzi enforces his rule over his subjects by acting virtuously himself, and it is thought that his pure virtue would lead others to follow his example. The ultimate goal is that the government behaves much like a family, the Junzi being a beacon of filial piety. In contrast to the Junzi, the Xiaoren, or small-minded or morally inferior people, do not grasp the value of virtues and seek only immediate gains. The petty person is egotistic and does not consider the consequences of his action in the overall scheme of things. Should the ruler be surrounded by Xiaoren as opposed to Junzi, his governance and his people will suffer due to their small-mindedness. Examples of such Xiaoren individuals may range from those who continually indulge in sensual and emotional pleasures all day to the politician who is interested merely in power and fame. The authority of the ruler and the submission of its people are grounded on a spiritual-ethical foundation, rather than on coercive power. The emperors of China were considered agents of Heaven, endowed with the Mandate of Heaven, one of the most vital concepts in imperial-era political theory. According to the Confucian classics, the Mandate is not fated or absolute, it reacts to the wishes and interests of the people. While virtuous rulers keep the Mandate, wicked rulers would be abandoned by the Mandate. Confucianism, despite supporting the importance of obeying national authority, places this obedience under absolute moral principles that curbed the willful exercise of power, rather than being unconditional. Submission to authority was only taken within the context of the moral obligations that rulers had toward their subjects, in particular Ren. Confucians, including the most pro-authoritarian scholars such as Xunzi, have always recognized the right of revolution against tyranny. Mencius provided more concrete and specific measures in the making of a good ruler, advising that a good ruler must prioritize the people's welfare by ensuring adequate food and shelter, implementing light taxation, and avoiding unnecessary warfare. He argued that rulers should govern by moral example, exhibiting sincerity, benevolence, and righteousness, so that subjects emulate virtuous conduct. Loyalty is particularly relevant for the social class to which most of Confucius's students belonged, because the most important way for an ambitious young scholar to become a prominent official was to enter a ruler's civil service. Confucius himself did not propose that might makes right, but rather that a superior should be obeyed because of his moral rectitude. In addition, loyalty does not mean subservience to authority, because reciprocity is demanded from the superior as well. As Confucius stated, a prince should employ his minister according to the rules of propriety, and ministers should serve their prince with faithfulness. Similarly, Mencius also said that when the prince regards his ministers as his hands and feet, his ministers regard their prince as their belly and heart; when he regards them as his dogs and horses, they regard him as another man; when he regards them as the ground or as grass, they regard him as a robber and an enemy. Moreover, Mencius indicated that if the ruler is incompetent, he should be replaced. If the ruler is evil, then the people have the right to overthrow him. A good Confucian is also expected to remonstrate with his superiors when necessary. At the same time, a proper Confucian ruler should also accept his ministers' advice, as this will help him govern the realm better. In later ages, however, emphasis was often placed more on the obligations of the ruled to the ruler, and less on the ruler's obligations to the ruled. Like filial piety, loyalty was often subverted by the autocratic regimes in China. Nonetheless, throughout the ages, many Confucians continued to fight against unrighteous superiors and rulers. Many of these Confucians suffered and sometimes died because of their conviction and action, such as Hai Rui in the Ming dynasty and Yuan Chang in the Qing.

From Meritocracy to Modern Revival

Confucian political meritocracy is not merely a historical phenomenon. The practice of meritocracy still exists across China and East Asia today, and a wide range of contemporary intellectuals, from Daniel Bell to Tongdong Bai, Joseph Chan, and Jiang Qing, defend political meritocracy as a viable alternative to liberal democracy. The Chinese imperial examination system started in the Sui dynasty. Over the following centuries the system grew until finally almost anyone who wished to become an official had to prove his worth by passing a set of written government examinations. This system allowed anyone who passed an examination to become a government officer, a position which would bring wealth and honor to the whole family. The abolition of the imperial examination system in 1905 marked the decline of state-endorsed Confucianism. This meant that conformity to Confucian ideology was no longer a prerequisite for a career in the civil service or politics, allowing persons of other ideologies, notably Nationalism and Socialism, to attain leading positions in society. In the early 20th century, Chinese reformers came to associate Confucianism with China's Century of Humiliation, and instead embraced alternative ideologies such as Sun Yat-sen's Three Principles of the People and later Maoism. Nevertheless, Confucianism endured as a cultural force, influencing East Asian economic and social structures into the modern era. Confucian work ethic was credited with the rise of the East Asian economy in the late twentieth century. Confucianism remains influential in China, Korea, Japan, Vietnam, and regions with significant Chinese diaspora. A modern Confucian revival has gained momentum in academic and cultural circles, culminating in the establishment of a national Confucian Church in China in 2015, reflecting renewed interest in Confucian ideals as a foundation for social and moral values. In 2003, the Confucian intellectual Kang Xiaoguang published a manifesto in which he made four suggestions: Confucian education should enter official education at any level, from elementary to high school; the state should establish Confucianism as the state religion by law; Confucian religion should enter the daily life of ordinary people through standardization and development of doctrines, rituals, organizations, churches and activity sites; the Confucian religion should be spread through non-governmental organizations. Another modern proponent of the institutionalization of Confucianism in a state church is Jiang Qing. In 2005, the Center for the Study of Confucian Religion was established, and Guoxue started to be implemented in public schools on all levels. Being well received by the population, even Confucian preachers have appeared on television since 2006. The most enthusiastic New Confucians proclaim the uniqueness and superiority of Confucian Chinese culture, and have generated some popular sentiment against Western cultural influences in China. The idea of a Confucian church as the state religion of China has roots in the thought of Kang Youwei, an exponent of the early New Confucian search for a regeneration of the social relevance of Confucianism, at a time when it was de-institutionalized with the collapse of the Qing dynasty and the Chinese empire. Kang modeled his ideal Confucian Church after European national Christian churches, as a hierarchic and centralized institution, closely bound to the state, with local church branches, devoted to the worship and the spread of the teachings of Confucius. In contemporary China, the Confucian revival has developed into various interwoven directions: the proliferation of Confucian schools or academies, the resurgence of Confucian rites, and the birth of new forms of Confucian activity on the popular level, such as the Confucian communities. Some scholars also consider the reconstruction of lineage churches and their ancestral temples, as well as cults and temples of natural and national gods within broader Chinese traditional religion, as part of the renewal of Confucianism. Other forms of revival are salvationist folk religious movements groups with a specifically Confucian focus, or Confucian churches, for example the Holy Hall of Confucius in Shenzhen, affiliated with the Federation of Confucian Culture of Qufu City. It was the first of a nationwide movement of congregations and civil organizations that was unified in 2015 in the Holy Confucian Church. The first spiritual leader of the church is the scholar Jiang Qing, the founder and manager of the Yangming Confucian Abode, a Confucian academy in Guiyang, Guizhou. Chinese folk religious temples and kinship ancestral shrines may, on peculiar occasions, choose Confucian liturgy to worship the gods, instead of Taoist or popular ritual. Confucian businessmen, also known as refined businessmen, is a recently rediscovered concept defining people of the economic-entrepreneurial elite who recognize their social responsibility and therefore apply Confucian culture to their business. Confucianism historically tried to proselytize to others, although this is rarely done in modern times. Given Confucianism's place of importance in historical Chinese governments, the argument has been made that Imperial China's wars were Confucianism's wars, but the connection between Confucianism and war is not so direct or simple. Modern Confucianism is the descendant of movements that greatly changed how they practiced the teachings of Confucius and his disciples from previous orthodox teachings.