Cultural Revolution
On the 16th of May 1966, an expanded session of the Politburo convened in Beijing to discuss a document prepared with Mao Zedong's personal supervision. This document, later known as the 16th of May Notification, declared that representatives of the bourgeoisie had sneaked into the Party, government, army, and cultural spheres. It warned that these counter-revolutionary revisionists would seize political power if conditions were ripe. The text described them as people who wave the red flag to oppose the red flag. Only through the telescope and microscope of Mao Zedong Thought could one identify such enemies within the party itself.
Mao launched this movement after years of ideological friction with the Soviet Union following Nikita Khrushchev's rise to power in 1953. In 1956, Khrushchev denounced Stalin, prompting Mao to label him a revisionist altering Marxist-Leninist concepts. By April 1960, Mao publicly denounced revisionism without naming the USSR directly but criticized its Balkan ally, the League of Communists of Yugoslavia. The Sino-Soviet split intensified when the USSR refused to support China's UN bid and reneged on nuclear weapon pledges. Soviet leaders authorized radio broadcasts stating they would assist genuine communists who overthrew Mao.
In late 1959, historian Wu Han published a historical drama titled Hai Rui Dismissed from Office. The play depicted an honest civil servant dismissed by a corrupt emperor. While Mao initially praised it, he secretly commissioned Jiang Qing and Yao Wenyuan to criticize the work in February 1965. Yao described the play as an allegory attacking Mao, casting Peng Dehuai as the honest civil servant. This literary battle became the prelude to political purges that would escalate into nationwide chaos.
On the 25th of May 1966, Nie Yuanzi, a philosophy lecturer at Peking University, posted a big-character poster attacking her university's party administration. Mao endorsed this poster as the first Marxist big-character poster in China. Students began revolting against school party establishments, leading to class cancellations across Beijing primary and secondary schools. By early June, throngs of young demonstrators lined capital thoroughfares holding giant portraits of Mao while beating drums and shouting slogans.
The movement escalated dramatically during Red August of 1966. On the 8th of August, the party's General Committee passed the Sixteen Points, defining the Cultural Revolution as a great revolution touching people to their very souls. Between August and November 1966, eight mass rallies drew 12 million people, mostly Red Guards. The Great Exchange of Revolutionary Experience program provided free food and lodging for Red Guards traveling nationwide from September 1966 to early 1967.
Violence erupted across Beijing during Red August. On the 22nd of August, central directives prevented police intervention in Red Guard activities. Those defying this notice were labeled counter-revolutionaries. Xie Fuzhi, national police chief, often pardoned Red Guards for crimes committed. During Red August alone, 1,772 people were murdered in Beijing, many teachers attacked by their own students. In Shanghai that same month, 704 suicides and 534 deaths occurred. Wuhan recorded 62 suicides and 32 murders during the same period.
In July 1967, Chen Zaidao, an army general in charge of Wuhan, forcibly repressed anti-establishment demonstrators. Mao flew to Wuhan with a large entourage of central officials to secure military loyalty. Local agitators kidnapped Mao's emissary Wang Li on the 20th of July 1967, creating what became known as the Wuhan Incident. Chen was subsequently sent to Beijing and tried by Jiang Qing and the rest of the Cultural Revolution Group. His resistance marked the last major open display of opposition within the People's Liberation Army.
The Gang of Four emerged as a dominant political force after Lin Biao's death in 1971. Jiang Qing allied herself with Wang Hongwen, Zhang Chunqiao, and Yao Wenyuan, forming a clique later pejoratively dubbed the Gang of Four. By 1973, round after round of political struggles left local governments, factories, and railways short of competent staff. China's economy fell into disarray while the party core remained heavily dominated by Cultural Revolution beneficiaries focused on ideological purity over economic productivity.
Zhou Enlai attempted to restore the economy but faced resentment from the Gang of Four who identified him as their primary political succession threat. In late 1973, they launched the Criticize Lin, Criticize Confucius campaign under Jiang's leadership. Its stated goals were purging New Confucianist thinking and denouncing Lin's actions as traitorous and regressive.
Estimates of deaths during the Cultural Revolution vary widely, typically ranging from one to two million people according to most scholarly sources. Andrew G. Walder examined reported deaths in 2,213 annals from every county between 1966 and 1971, interpreting vague language conservatively. He found that serious man-made disasters like the 1975 Banqiao Dam failure also caused many deaths alongside revolutionary violence.
A massacre occurred in Guangxi province involving acts of cannibalism among other atrocities. Massacres took place across Beijing, Inner Mongolia, Guangdong, Yunnan, and Hunan provinces. The CCP History Research Center counted 1.728 million unnatural deaths, including 162,000 CCP party members and 252,000 intellectuals. Rudolph J. Rummel estimated figures reaching 7.731 million when including Laogai camp deaths over a twelve-year period.
During the One Strike-Three Anti Campaign launched in early 1970, government statistics released after the Cultural Revolution showed 1.87 million people were persecuted as traitors, spies, and counterrevolutionaries. Over 284,800 were arrested or killed from February to November 1970 alone. Tens of millions faced persecution overall, including senior officials such as Liu Shaoqi, Deng Xiaoping, and Peng Dehuai.
By year end 1967, national industrial output had decreased by 13.8% from the previous year due to violent clashes disrupting economic activity. Touring Red Guards overburdened China's transportation system while factional warfare consumed resources nationwide. In Chongqing, Xiamen, and Changchun, tanks, armored vehicles, and even warships were deployed in combat between rebel factions.
The Down to the Countryside Movement began in December 1968, ordering young bourgeoisie living in cities to work in rural areas for the following decade. This movement served as a means of moving Red Guards from cities to countryside where they would cause less social disruption. Approximately 10 million youth from urban areas were relocated under this program before returning home in the late 1970s.
Deng Xiaoping returned to political power in March 1973 as Vice-Premier after Zhou Enlai withdrew from active politics. By January 1975, Deng effectively controlled government, party, and military affairs with additional titles including PLA General Chief of Staff. He streamlined railway systems and steel production despite Gang of Four opposition. On the 18th of December 1978, the Third Plenum of the 11th Central Committee officially marked the beginning of the economic reform era.
On the 9th of September 1976, Mao Zedong died, symbolizing loss of China's revolutionary foundation for his supporters. The nation descended into grief with people weeping in streets while public institutions closed for over a week. Hua Guofeng chaired the Funeral Committee and delivered the memorial speech. Shortly before dying, Mao allegedly wrote the message With you in charge I'm at ease to Hua, using it to substantiate his position as successor.
The Gang of Four grew apprehensive about spontaneous popular support for Zhou Enlai following his death on the 8th of January 1976. They acted through media to impose restrictions on public mourning displays. On the 4th of April 1976, thousands gathered around the Monument to the People's Heroes in Tiananmen Square to commemorate Zhou. Up to two million people may have visited that day honoring Zhou by laying wreaths, banners, poems, placards, and flowers.
On the 6th of October 1976, the Central Security Bureau's Special Unit 8341 arrested all members of the Gang of Four in a bloodless coup with army backing. Following Mao's death, people characterized as beating-smashing-looting elements were purged or punished. These typically aligned with rebel factions who had disturbed social order during the Cultural Revolution.
In September 1977, Deng Xiaoping first proposed what he called Boluan Fanzheng to correct mistakes of the Cultural Revolution. The Truth Criterion Discussion launched by Deng and Hu Yaobang triggered a decade-long New Enlightenment movement promoting democracy, humanism, and universal values while opposing Cultural Revolution ideology. On the 18th of December 1978, the Third Plenum officially marked beginning of economic reform era when Hua Guofeng engaged in self-criticism calling his Two Whatevers a mistake.
The trial of the Gang of Four took place in Beijing from 1980 to 1981. Court stated that 729,511 people had been persecuted by the Gang, of whom 34,800 died according to official records. In 1981, the Communist Party passed resolution declaring Cultural Revolution responsible for most severe setback and heaviest losses suffered since founding of People's Republic.
Within few years, Deng and Hu helped rehabilitate over three million unjust false erroneous cases. Former Chinese president Liu Shaoqi received belated state funeral while Peng Dehuai was rehabilitated in 1978. Memories and perspectives remain varied and complex in contemporary China where it is often referred to as ten years of chaos or ten years of havoc.
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Common questions
What was the Cultural Revolution and when did it take place?
The Cultural Revolution was a period of sociopolitical turmoil in China that lasted from 1966 to 1976. It began on the 16th of May 1966 with an expanded session of the Politburo convening in Beijing to discuss a document prepared with Mao Zedong's personal supervision.
Who started the Cultural Revolution and what were their motivations?
Mao Zedong launched this movement after years of ideological friction with the Soviet Union following Nikita Khrushchev's rise to power in 1953. He denounced revisionism publicly by April 1960 and criticized its Balkan ally, the League of Communists of Yugoslavia, before the Sino-Soviet split intensified.
How many people died during the Cultural Revolution according to official records?
Estimates of deaths during the Cultural Revolution vary widely, typically ranging from one to two million people according to most scholarly sources. The CCP History Research Center counted 1.728 million unnatural deaths, including 162,000 CCP party members and 252,000 intellectuals.
When did the Gang of Four get arrested and who was involved?
On the 6th of October 1976, the Central Security Bureau's Special Unit 8341 arrested all members of the Gang of Four in a bloodless coup with army backing. Jiang Qing allied herself with Wang Hongwen, Zhang Chunqiao, and Yao Wenyuan to form this dominant political force after Lin Biao's death in 1971.
What happened to young people during the Down to the Countryside Movement?
The Down to the Countryside Movement began in December 1968, ordering young bourgeoisie living in cities to work in rural areas for the following decade. Approximately 10 million youth from urban areas were relocated under this program before returning home in the late 1970s.