Advaita Vedanta
The earliest seeds of Advaita Vedanta took root in the Sannyasa Upanishads, texts composed during the first centuries CE. These writings predate the famous philosopher Adi Shankara by several hundred years and established a distinct non-dual outlook within Hindu thought. A key figure in this early period was Gaudapada, who wrote the Mandukya-karika in the 7th century. Gaudapada adapted philosophical concepts from Buddhism to give them a Vedantic basis and interpretation. His work introduced ideas about the illusory nature of the world that would later become central to the tradition. Another important text from this era is the Vakypadiya, written by Bhartrihari in the second half of the 5th century. These early works formed a foundation upon which later scholars would build a more systematic philosophy.
Adi Shankara emerged as the most prominent exponent of Advaita Vedanta during the 8th century CE. He synthesized existing ideas into a coherent philosophical system that defined the tradition for centuries to come. While some of the most prominent Advaita propositions came from other thinkers, Shankara's influence became dominant over time. He emphasized that Brahman knowledge is immediate and requires no action or striving. This subitist position argued that liberation happens at once when the great statements are understood. However, his early influence has been questioned by modern scholars who note that his prominence took shape only centuries later. The tradition gained institutional power with the ascent of the Sringeri matha and its jagadguru Vidyaranya in the 14th century within the Vijayanagara Empire. Before this period, no mention of these monasteries can be found before the 14th century CE according to Paul Hacker.
The core tenet of Advaita Vedanta states that jivatman, the individual experiencing self, is ultimately pure awareness mistakenly identified with the body and its senses. This self is non-different from Atman/Brahman or sat, the highest Self or Real. The term Advaita literally means not-two or one without a second. Only Brahman, the one, is ultimately real while prapanca, the world or multiplicity of thought-constructs, is not fully real. Adi Shankara proposed three levels of reality to explain how the empirical world relates to absolute truth. Paramartha represents the state of experiencing what is absolutely real into which both other reality levels can be resolved. Vyavahara consists of the empirical or pragmatical reality that is ever changing over time but empirically true at a given context. Pratibhasika describes apparent reality based on imagination alone such as the roaring of a lion fabricated in dreams during sleep. These theories have not enjoyed universal consensus among Advaitins and various competing ontological interpretations have flowered within the tradition.
Liberation in Advaita is called moksha and is attained when knowledge of Brahman destroys ignorance regarding one's true identity. According to Shankara taking a subitist position, moksha is attained at once when the mahavakyas are understood. Yet the Advaita tradition also emphasizes human effort through a path of Jnana Yoga with progression of study and training. This path consists of four stages: viraga renunciation, sravana listening to teachings, manana reflection on teachings and nididhyasana introspection and profound meditation. The threefold practice aims at realization and consequent conviction of truths where there is fusion of thought and action. Although broadly accepted in the tradition it is at odds with Shankara who took a subitist position arguing moksha comes instantly upon understanding. Mandana Misra explicitly affirms the threefold practice as means to acquire knowledge of Brahman referring to meditation as dhyana. Later texts like Drg-Drsya-Viveka from the 14th century added samadhi as a means to liberation emphasizing yogic concentration as aid to gaining knowledge.
Post-Shankara traditions diverged significantly regarding the nature of ignorance and causality within the philosophy. The Bhamati school founded by Vacaspati Misra located avidya or root ignorance in the jiva or prakriti while the Vivarana school locates it in Brahman. Prakasatman of the Vivarana school introduced the notion that the world is illusory declaring phenomenal reality to be an unreal manifestation of Brahman. This vivarta theory became dominant explanation though scholars note Adi Shankara himself likely explained causality through parinamavada instead. The later tradition turned avidya into a metaphysical principle called mulavidya serving as primal material cause of universe. Satchidanandendra Saraswati argued in the 20th century that Padmapada and Prakasatman had misconstrued Shankara's stance on this matter. These schools differed on role of contemplation but both denied possibility of perceiving supersensuous knowledge through popular yoga techniques. The divergence created complex debates about whether the world is real transformation of Brahman or merely appearance without substance change.
In modern times Advaita views appear in various Neo-Vedanta movements adapting classical ideas for contemporary audiences and Western contexts. Swami Vivekananda fully embraced yogic samadhi as an Advaita means of knowledge and liberation synthesizing traditional philosophy with practical discipline. The importance of Advaita Vedanta was overemphasized by Western scholarship due to influence of Vidyaranya's Sarvadarśanasańgraha in the 19th century. Despite numerical dominance of theistic Bhakti-oriented religiosity in India, Advaita came to be regarded as paradigmatic example of Hindu spirituality. Contemporary Advaita is yogic synthesis incorporating Yoga and other traditions producing works in vernacular languages rather than just Sanskrit. This broader current has been called greater Advaita Vedanta vernacular advaita and experiential Advaita though term advaitic may be more apt. The tradition now includes popular works from late medieval times onward that incorporate Yoga ideas alongside scholarly commentaries on principal Upanishads.
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Common questions
When did the earliest seeds of Advaita Vedanta take root?
The earliest seeds of Advaita Vedanta took root in the Sannyasa Upanishads during the first centuries CE. These writings predate the famous philosopher Adi Shankara by several hundred years and established a distinct non-dual outlook within Hindu thought.
Who wrote the Mandukya-karika in the 7th century?
Gaudapada wrote the Mandukya-karika in the 7th century. He adapted philosophical concepts from Buddhism to give them a Vedantic basis and interpretation while introducing ideas about the illusory nature of the world that would later become central to the tradition.
What does the term Advaita literally mean?
The term Advaita literally means not-two or one without a second. Only Brahman, the one, is ultimately real while prapanca, the world or multiplicity of thought-constructs, is not fully real.
How many levels of reality did Adi Shankara propose?
Adi Shankara proposed three levels of reality to explain how the empirical world relates to absolute truth. Paramartha represents the state of experiencing what is absolutely real, Vyavahara consists of the empirical or pragmatical reality, and Pratibhasika describes apparent reality based on imagination alone.
When was the Sringeri matha institutionally powerful under Vidyaranya?
The tradition gained institutional power with the ascent of the Sringeri matha and its jagadguru Vidyaranya in the 14th century within the Vijayanagara Empire. Before this period, no mention of these monasteries can be found before the 14th century CE according to Paul Hacker.