Republic of Venice

• 1. Origins And Ducal Age

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  In 697, Paolo Lucio Anafesto became the first doge of Venice according to tradition. This date marks the birth of a sovereign state that would survive for over eleven centuries. The early republic emerged from Byzantine territories in the Dogado area, which today corresponds to the Metropolitan City of Venice. Local populations appointed duces to replace Byzantine governors after Emperor Leo III attempted to extend iconoclasm to the Exarchate of Ravenna in 726. Orso governed the lagoon for a decade before his death. The Byzantines then entrusted the province to magistri militum until 742 when they granted the people the right to appoint a dux. Theodato, son of Orso, moved the capital from Heraclia to Metamauco. A pro-Frankish party led by Equilium and a pro-Byzantine party with a stronghold in Heraclia divided the Venetians during the Lombard conquest of Ravenna in 751. Doge Obelerio attacked both cities simultaneously in 805, deporting their population to the capital. He placed Venezia under Frankish protection but renewed loyalty to the Eastern Emperor after a Byzantine naval blockade. Pepin invaded the lagoon in 810, forcing locals to retreat to Rivoalto. Agnello Participazio definitively moved the capital to Rivoalto in 812, decreeing the birth of Venice as we know it. Agnello attempted to make the ducal office hereditary by associating an heir called co-dux. His two sons Giustiniano and Giovanni reached the ducal position, but Giovanni was deposed in 836 due to inadequacy against Narentine pirates. Pietro Tradonico was elected after Tradonico's death following a conspiracy in 864. Orso I Participazio resumed the fight against piracy and protected the Dogado from Saracen attacks. Orso assigned the dukedom to his eldest son Giovanni II Participazio who abdicated in favor of his brother. In 958, Pietro IV Candiano established feudalism causing a revolt that led to the burning of the capital and the killing of the doge in 976. The conflicts were resolved only in 991 with the election of Pietro II Orseolo.

• 2. Maritime Empire Expansion

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  Pietro II Orseolo gave a notable boost to Venetian commercial expansion by stipulating new commercial privileges with the Holy Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empire. In 1000 he subjugated coastal cities of Istria and Dalmatia. Emperor Alexios I Komnenos granted Venice the chrysobull in 1082, allowing merchants substantial tax exemptions in numerous Byzantine ports. A Venetian neighborhood was established in Durrës and Constantinople. The war ended in 1085 when Robert Guiscard died. Emperor John II Komnenos decided not to renew the chrysobull of 1082, arousing Venice's reaction which declared war on the Byzantine Empire in 1122. The war ended in 1126 with victory for Venice forcing the emperor to stipulate a new agreement. In 1171, following the emperor's decision to expel Venetian merchants from Constantinople, a new war broke out resolved with restoration of status quo. By the end of the 12th century, commercial traffic extended throughout the East. Doge Enrico Dandolo exploited the Fourth Crusade expedition in 1202 to conclude the Zara War. Venice conquered the city and won the war regaining control of Dalmatia. The Venetian crusader fleet continued towards Constantinople to besiege it on the 12th of April 1204. This put an end to the Byzantine Empire and formally made Venice independent. The empire was dismembered into Crusader states giving Venice numerous ports in the Morea and islands including Crete and Euboea. The doge obtained the title of Lord of a quarter and a half of the Eastern Roman Empire. Venice concentrated efforts on conquering Crete involving its army until 1237. Control over eastern trade routes caused conflicts with Genoa exploding into the War of Saint Sabas in 1255. On the 24th of June 1258 the two republics faced each other in the Battle of Acre ending with overwhelming Venetian victory.

• 3. Rivalry With Genoa

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  The war between Genoa and Venice resumed after 1261 when the Empire of Nicaea dissolved the Eastern Latin Empire with help from Genoa. The conflict ended in 1270 with the Peace of Cremona. In 1293 a new war broke out won by Genoese following the Battle of Curzola and ending in 1299. During these wars administrative reforms were implemented establishing new assemblies replacing popular ones like the Senate. Power began concentrating in about ten families within the Great Council. To avoid birth of a lordship, Doge increased members of Maggior Consiglio while leaving number of families unchanged implementing Serrata del Maggior Consiglio in 1297. In 1310 under pretext of defeat in War of Ferrara families organized Tiepolo conspiracy. Once coup d'état failed, Doge Pietro Gradenigo established Council of Ten assigned task repressing threats to state security. Skirmishes between Venetians and Genoese resumed leading to War of Straits in 1350. Following defeat at Battle of Sapienza, Doge Marino Faliero attempted city lordship but coup foiled by Council of Ten which condemned him to death on the 17th of April 1355. Louis I of Hungary attacked Dalmatia conquered in 1358 signing Treaty of Zadar. Weakness pushed Crete and Trieste to revolt quelled reaffirming dominion over Stato da Màr. In 1378 two republics faced each other in War of Chioggia. Initially Genoese conquered Chioggia and vast areas of lagoon but Venetians prevailed. The war ended definitively on the 8th of August 1381 with Treaty of Turin sanctioning exit of Genoese from competition for Mediterranean dominion. Final victory resulted in maritime hegemony and dominance of eastern trade routes.

• 4. Ottoman Wars And Decline

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  Hostilities began after Prince Mehmed I established himself as sultan ending Ottoman Interregnum. Conflict escalated until Pietro Loredan won crushing victory against Turks off Gallipoli in 1416. Venice expanded along Dalmatian coast acquiring cities from King Ladislaus of Naples for 100,000 ducats. Between 1420-1450 Venice had around 3,345 ships crewed by 36,000 men including 45 galleys by 11,000 men. By 1490 population rose to about 180,000 people. Ottoman Empire started sea campaigns in 1423 waging seven-year war over Aegean Ionian and Adriatic Seas. Wars resumed after Ottomans captured Kingdom of Bosnia in 1463 lasting until favorable peace treaty signed in 1479 after siege of Shkodra. In February 1489 island of Cyprus added to Venetian holdings. War with Ottomans resumed from 1499 to 1503. Antonio Grimani defeated in sea battle of Zonchio in 1499. Turks sacked Friuli again. Venice surrendered bases of Lepanto Durazzo Modon and Coron. League of Cambrai formed in 1508 under Pope Julius II leadership. On the 14th of May 1509 Venice crushedly defeated at Battle of Agnadello marking delicate point in history. French and imperial troops occupied Veneto but Venice extricated itself through diplomacy. Citizens rose crying Marco Marco while Andrea Gritti recaptured Padua in July 1509. Events of 1509 marked end of Venetian expansion. In summer 1570 Turks struck with full-scale invasion. About 60,000 troops landed near Limassol on the 2nd of July 1570 laying siege to Nicosia. City fell on the 9th of September 1570; 20,000 Nicosians put to death. Famagusta resisted until August 1571. Two months later Holy League defeated Turkish fleet at Battle of Lepanto despite victory Cyprus remained under Ottoman rule for next three centuries. By 1581 population dropped to 124,000 partly due to plague of 1575-76. Cretan War lasted from 1645 to 1669 losing major overseas possession Crete though keeping Spinalonga and Suda bases. Last Turkish-Venetian War began December 1714 when Morea lacked supplies. Danile Dolfin thought better save fleet than risk it. Treaty of Passarowitz signed the 21st of July 1718 Venice lost Morea. By year 1792 once-great merchant fleet declined to mere 309 merchantmen.

• 5. Political Architecture

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  The Doge was head of state lasting life appearing on coins ducal bulls judicial sentences letters sent to foreign governments. Greatest power promulgated laws commanding army during war executing all judicial sentences via Sopragastaldo. Election decreed by assembly of forty-one electors chosen after long series elections avoiding fraud. Once elected Doge obligated pronouncing promissione ducale oath promising loyalty recognizing limitations powers. Signoria highest assembly composed Doge Minor Council three leaders Quarantia Criminale presiding over major assemblies College Senate Council Ten. Members proposed voting laws convening Great Council anytime. Minor Council elected six councilors three at time every eight months remaining office one year. Within Minor Council Three State Inquisitors elected Deputy Doge presided Republic rest Signoria following death Doge. Over centuries 120 doges followed one another including Paolo Lucio Anafesto first Doge Marino Faliero beheaded attempting found Lordship Francesco Foscari expanding dominions Ludovico Manin last Doge. College Sages composed three subcommissions hands: Sages Council Mainland Orders summit executive power elected Senate when presided Full College. Six Sages Council established agenda work Senate while Sages Orders progressively lost importance managing mude navy. Five Sages Mainland included Sage Ceremonials Sage dispatch laws three proper ministers Sage Finances Sage Scripture Sage Ordinances. Full College primary function maintaining relations foreign states Church welcoming ambassadors nuncios clergy. Great Council made all noble men twenty-five years registered Libro d'Oro holding legislative elective power initially around four hundred members increasing considerably following Lockout Great Council so much so 16th century 2,095 nobles participated session 1527 entitled sit reached 2,746. Each member allowed vote propose new law approved Council itself responsible reforming repealing laws. While legislative power mostly held Senate elective power almost exclusive to Great Council. Council elected eighty-four magistracies including Minor Council Senate Council Forty Council Ten grand chancellor Avogadoria de Comùn captains podestà provveditori camerlenghi indirectly Doge. Senate primarily held legislative power made up around 300 members over thirty-five years 120 senators elected Great Council added Council Ten Council Forty College Sages many other magistracies often holding exclusive power voting proposing laws. Senate responsible legislating mainly financial commercial foreign policies. Council Forty body holding maximum judicial power divided Quarantia Criminale criminal trials Quarantia Civil Vecchia Quarantia Civil Nuova civil trials Dogado Mainland Dominions two panels fifteen twenty-five members minor importance cases. Judges rotated starting colleges arriving Quarantia Criminale working eight months each assembly remaining office two years eight months. Special state security agency created following Tiepolo conspiracy Council Ten ten members guaranteeing security Republic government through any means acting court jurisdiction state security matters power broad condemning Doge Marino Faliero death 1355 position lasting one year ten exercising other public functions family ties between them. Three State Inquisitors replacing ordinary judges proceeding secret greater power within body.

• 6. Social Stratification

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  Venetian society clearly distinguished two social classes starting 13th century: Patricians and Citizens excluding slaves. Venetian aristocracy relatively open social category documented Libro d'Oro first direct descendants first tribunes magistrates families actively economically participated War Chioggia War Candia Morean War. In 1774 all noble houses Mainland Dominions added Libro d'Oro managed Avogadoria de Comùn containing list births weddings patriciate. Aristocracy not only privileged people professional servants State educated richest attending University Padua impoverished nobility educated free Giudecca. Positions short-lived often lasting one year poorly paid preventing concentration power few hands ensuring turnover allowing greatest number aristocrats employment. Nobles relations foreigners leaving borders asking pardons distributing money maintained even after judicial accusations betrayal homeland. Original citizens natives Venetian families third degree enjoyed full citizenship excluding Jews allowed assume public offices becoming chancellors secretaries lawyers notaries joined scholae religious professional confraternities providing mutual aid setting rules professions taking place Venice. Citizens de intra new arrivals based merit granted full citizenship guarantee State borders carrying jobs city. Citizens de extra also full citizenship granting privilege sail trade as Venetian citizen. Earliest evidence Jewish presence dates back 932; 12th century community around thousand members established Mestre rather Giudecca previously believed. Every day Jews left Mestre went Venice particularly San Marco Rialto districts working trafficking goods granting money loans medical profession. Usury work necessary functioning city business activities although did not have citizenship allowed live buy house admitted capital permits renewed every five ten years. Decree dated the 22nd of May 1298 limit placed interest rate loans set between 10% 12% tax 5% imposed commercial traffic. Group Jewish moneylenders allowed live lagoon first time 1385. On the 25th of September 1386 requested obtained purchase part land Monastery San Nicolò Lido burying deceased creating Jewish cemetery still functioning today. Towards end 14th century restrictions increased staying city two weeks forced wear yellow circle distinctive sign transforming 16th century red cloth. After defeat Agnadello League Cambrai many Jews Vicenza Conegliano took refuge lagoon making coexistence Christians difficult. Following social tensions Venetian Ghetto established the 29th of March 1516 foundries previously stood expanded 1541 room Levantine Jews. Work Jews placed under supervision magistrates Cattaver managing ghetto pawnshops trading second-hand goods making ghetto important commercial center. Ghetto divided communities based country origin each synagogue. Plague ghetto repopulated Eastern European Jews 1633 expanded meantime Venice lost centrality community began shrink taxes increasing sectarian movements arising situation declined until 1737 community declared bankruptcy.

• 7. Cultural Legacy And Fall

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  Printing graphic arts constituted thriving economic sector Republic main means disseminating Venetian knowledge discoveries technical humanistic scientific fields. Birth Venetian publishing dates back 15th century particularly the 18th of September 1469 German Johann Speyer efforts government passed first law protecting publishers granting printing privilege giving publisher exclusive right print certain works. Besides German community French community led Nicolas Jenson owned most presses towards end 15th century. Between 1495 1515 Aldus Manutius further developed publishing via three innovations octavo format italic character hooked comma spreading throughout Europe. Inventions allowed become largest Venetian publisher consequently attracting major humanists including Pietro Bembo Erasmus. After Manutius many Italian entrepreneurs like Florentine Lucantonio Giunti opened presses 200 businesses end 16th century higher book circulations average European cities. Though economic vitality started decline since 16th century movement international trade Atlantic political regime appeared 18th century model philosophers Enlightenment Jean-Jacques Rousseau hired July 1743 secretary Comte Montaigu named ambassador France Venice short experience awakened interest policy leading design large book political philosophy Discourse Origin Basis Inequality Among Men published 1755 Social Contract published 1762. By 1796 Republic could no longer defend itself war fleet numbered four galleys seven galiots. Spring 1796 Piedmont Duchy Savoy fell invading French Austrians beaten Montenotte Lodi. Army Napoleon crossed frontiers neutral Venice pursuit enemy. End year French troops occupying state Adige River Vicenza Cadore Friuli held Austrians. Campaigns next year Napoleon aimed Austrian possessions across Alps preliminaries Peace Leoben terms remained secret Austrians take Venetian possessions Balkans price peace the 18th of April 1797 France acquired Lombard part state. Ludovico Manin surrendered unconditionally the 12th of May abdicated Major Council declared end republic. Public powers passed provisional municipality under French military governor. the 17th of October France Austria signed Treaty Campo Formio agreeing share territory new border west Adige. Italian democrats especially young poet Ugo Foscolo viewed treaty betrayal. Metropolitan part disbanded republic became Austrian territory name Venetian Province.