Spain

• 1. Ancient Foundations And Romanization

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  Archaeological research at Atapuerca indicates the Iberian Peninsula was populated by hominids 1.3 million years ago. Modern humans first arrived in Iberia from the north about 35,000 years ago. The best-known artefacts of these prehistoric human settlements are the paintings in the Altamira cave of Cantabria in northern Iberia. These paintings were created from 35,600 to 13,500 BCE by Cro-Magnon people. Archaeological and genetic evidence suggests that the Iberian Peninsula acted as one of several major refugia from which northern Europe was repopulated following the end of the last ice age. The two largest groups inhabiting the Iberian Peninsula before the Roman conquest were the Iberians and the Celts. The Iberians inhabited the Mediterranean side of the peninsula while the Celts inhabited much of the interior and Atlantic sides. Basques occupied the western area of the Pyrenees mountain range and adjacent areas. Phoenician-influenced Tartessians flourished in the southwest. Lusitanians and Vettones occupied areas in the central west. Several cities were founded along the coast by Phoenicians. Trading outposts and colonies were established by Greeks in the east. Eventually, Phoenician-Carthaginians expanded inland towards the meseta. Due to the bellicose inland tribes, the Carthaginians settled on the coasts of the Iberian Peninsula. During the Second Punic War, roughly between 210 and 205 BCE, the expanding Roman Republic captured Carthaginian trading colonies along the Mediterranean coast. It took the Romans nearly two centuries to complete the conquest of the Iberian Peninsula. They retained control of it for over six centuries. Roman rule was bound together by law, language, and the Roman road. The cultures of the pre-Roman populations were gradually Romanised at different rates depending on what part of the peninsula they lived in. Local leaders were admitted into the Roman aristocratic class. Hispania served as a granary for the Roman market. Its harbours exported gold, wool, olive oil, and wine. Agricultural production increased with the introduction of irrigation projects, some of which remain in use today. Emperors Hadrian, Trajan, Theodosius I, and the philosopher Seneca were born in Hispania. Christianity was introduced into Hispania in the 1st century CE. It became popular in the cities in the 2nd century. Most of Spain's present languages and religions, as well as the basis of its laws, originate from this period. Starting in 170 CE, incursions of North-African Mauri in the province of Baetica took place. The Germanic Suebi and Vandals, together with the Sarmatian Alans, entered the peninsula after 409. The Suebi established a kingdom in north-western Iberia. The Vandals established themselves in the south of the peninsula by 420 before crossing over to North Africa in 429. As the western Roman empire disintegrated, the social and economic base became greatly simplified. The successor regimes maintained many of the institutions and laws of the late empire including Christianity and assimilation into the evolving Roman culture. The Byzantines established an occidental province called Spania in the south with the intention of reviving Roman rule throughout Iberia. Eventually however, Hispania was reunited under Visigothic rule.

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• 2. Islamic Conquest And Christian Reconquista

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  From 711 to 718, as part of the expansion of the Umayyad Caliphate which had conquered North Africa from the Byzantine Empire, nearly all of the Iberian Peninsula was conquered by Muslims from across the Strait of Gibraltar. This resulted in the collapse of the Visigothic Kingdom. Only a small area in the mountainous north of the peninsula stood out of the territory seized during the initial invasion. The Kingdom of Asturias-León consolidated upon this territory. Other Christian kingdoms such as Navarre and Aragon in the mountainous north eventually surged upon the consolidation of counties of the Carolingian Marca Hispanica. For several centuries, the fluctuating frontier between the Muslim and Christian-controlled areas of the peninsula was along the Ebro and Douro valleys. Conversion to Islam proceeded at an increasing pace. The muladíes are believed to have formed the majority of the population of Al-Andalus by the end of the 10th century. A series of Viking incursions raided the coasts of the Iberian Peninsula in the 9th and 10th centuries. In the 11th century, the Caliphate of Córdoba collapsed fracturing into a series of petty kingdoms known as Taifas. These often paid protection money called Parias to the Northern Christian kingdoms while undertaking southward territorial expansion. The capture of the strategic city of Toledo in 1085 marked a significant shift in the balance of power in favour of the Christian kingdoms. The arrival from North Africa of the Islamic ruling sects of the Almoravids and the Almohads achieved temporary unity upon the Muslim-ruled territory with a stricter less tolerant application of Islam. This partially reversed some Christian territorial gains. The Kingdom of León was the strongest Christian kingdom for centuries. In 1188, the first form of modern parliamentary session in Europe was held in León during the Cortes of León. The Kingdom of Castile formed from Leonese territory became its successor as the strongest kingdom. Kings and nobility fought for power and influence in this period. The example of Roman emperors influenced the political objective of the Crown while nobles benefited from feudalism. Muslim strongholds in the Guadalquivir Valley such as Córdoba fell to Castile in 1236 and Seville fell in 1248. The County of Barcelona and the Kingdom of Aragon entered in a dynastic union and gained territory and power in the Mediterranean. In 1229 Mallorca was conquered as was Valencia in 1238. In the 13th and 14th centuries, the North-African Marinids established some enclaves around the Strait of Gibraltar. Upon the conclusion of the Granada War, the Nasrid Sultanate of Granada capitulated in 1492 to the military strength of the Catholic Monarchs. It was integrated from then on into the Crown of Castile.

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• 3. Imperial Expansion And The Golden Age

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  In 1469, the crowns of the Christian kingdoms of Castile and Aragon were united by the marriage of their monarchs Isabella I and Ferdinand II. In 1492, as part of the Spanish Inquisition, Jews were forced to choose between conversion to Catholicism or expulsion. As many as 200,000 Jews were expelled from Castile and Aragon. The year 1492 also marked the arrival of Christopher Columbus in the New World during a voyage funded by Isabella. Columbus's first voyage crossed the Atlantic and reached the Caribbean Islands beginning the European exploration and conquest of the Americas. The Treaty of Granada guaranteed religious tolerance towards Muslims for a few years before Islam was outlawed in 1502 in Castile and 1527 in Aragon. This led the remaining Muslim population to become nominally Christian Moriscos. About four decades after the War of the Alpujarras which ran from 1568 to 1571, over 300,000 moriscos were expelled settling primarily in North Africa. The unification of the crowns of Aragon and Castile laid the basis for modern Spain and the Spanish Empire though each kingdom remained separate socially politically legally and in currency and language. Habsburg Spain was one of the leading world powers throughout the 16th century and most of the 17th century. Its position was reinforced by trade and wealth from colonial possessions making it the world's leading maritime power. It reached its apogee during the reigns of Charles V/I who ruled from 1516 to 1556 and Philip II who ruled from 1556 to 1598. This period saw the Spanish conquest of the Aztec and Inca empires alongside the Italian Wars and the Schmalkaldic War. The Dutch Revolt and the War of the Portuguese Succession followed with clashes against Ottomans and intervention in French Wars of Religion. The Anglo-Spanish War occurred between 1585 and 1604. Through exploration and conquest or royal marriage alliances and inheritance, the Spanish Empire expanded across vast areas in the Americas Indo-Pacific Africa as well as the European continent including holdings in the Italian Peninsula Low Countries and Franche-Comté. Precious metals spices luxuries and previously unknown plants brought to the metropole played a leading part in transforming the European understanding of the globe. The cultural efflorescence witnessed during this period is now referred to as the Spanish Golden Age. The expansion of the empire caused immense upheaval in the Americas as collapse of societies and new diseases from Europe devastated American indigenous populations. Spain's 16th-century maritime supremacy was demonstrated by victory over the Ottoman Empire at the Battle of Lepanto in 1571 and over Portugal at the Battle of Ponta Delgada in 1582. After the setback of the Spanish Armada in 1588, victories against England continued in the Anglo-Spanish War of 1585, 1604. In the middle decades of the 17th century, Spain's maritime power went into long decline with mounting defeats against Dutch Republic and then England in the Anglo-Spanish War of 1654, 1660. By the 1660s, Spain struggled to defend its overseas possessions from pirates and privateers. Protestant Reformation increased Spain's involvement in religiously charged wars forcing ever-expanding military efforts across Europe and in the Mediterranean. By the middle decades of a war- and plague-ridden 17th-century Europe, the Spanish Habsburgs had enmeshed Spain in continent-wide religious-political conflicts. These conflicts drained Spain of resources and undermined the economy generally. Spain managed to hold on to most of the scattered Habsburg empire helping imperial forces reverse advances made by Protestant forces. Spain finally recognized separation of Portugal and United Provinces suffering serious military reverses to France in latter stages of Thirty Years' War. In latter half of 17th century, Spain entered gradual decline surrendering several small territories to France and England while maintaining vast overseas empire intact until beginning of 19th century.

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• 4. Revolutionary Turmoil And Civil War

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  During Enlightenment in Spain a new royal family reigned called House of Bourbon. The decline culminated in controversy over succession consuming first years of 18th century. War of Spanish Succession was wide-ranging international conflict combined with civil war costing kingdom European possessions and position as leading European power. During this war new dynasty originating in France Bourbons installed. Crowns of Castile and Aragon long united only by Monarchy and common institution of Inquisition's Holy Office. Reform policies known as Bourbon Reforms pursued by monarchy with goal of centralized authority and administrative uniformity. They included abolishment of many old regional privileges laws and customs barrier between Crowns of Aragon and Castile in 1717 followed introduction of new property taxes in Aragonese kingdoms. 18th century saw gradual recovery increase in prosperity through much of Spanish empire. Predominant economic policy interventionist one State also pursued policies aiming towards infrastructure development abolition internal customs reduction export tariffs. Projects agricultural colonization with new settlements took place south mainland Spain. Enlightenment ideas began gain ground among some kingdom elite and monarchy. In 1793, Spain went to war against revolutionary French Republic as member first Coalition. Subsequent War Pyrenees polarized country reaction gallicised elites following defeat field peace made France 1795 Peace Basel lost control two-thirds island Hispaniola. In 1807 secret treaty Napoleon unpopular prime minister led new declaration war Britain Portugal. French troops entered country invade Portugal instead occupied Spain major fortresses. Spanish king abdicated puppet kingdom satellite French Empire installed Joseph Bonaparte king. the 2nd of May 1808 revolt one many uprisings across country against French occupation. These revolts marked beginning devastating war independence Napoleonic regime. Further military action Spanish armies guerrilla warfare Anglo-Portuguese allied army combined Napoleon failure Russian front led retreat French imperial armies Iberian Peninsula 1814 return King Ferdinand VII. During war 1810 revolutionary body Cortes Cádiz assembled coordinate effort against Bonapartist regime prepare constitution. Cortes Cádiz 1812 first parliament Spain sovereign power met one body members represented entire Spanish empire. In 1812 constitution universal representation under constitutional monarchy declared fall Bonapartist regime Spanish king dismissed Cortes Generales set ruling absolute monarch. French occupation mainland Spain created opportunity overseas criollo elites resented privilege towards Peninsular elites demanded retroversion sovereignty people. Starting 1809 American colonies began series revolutions declared independence leading Spanish American wars independence put end metropole grip Spanish Main. Attempts re-assert control proved futile opposition not only colonies Iberian peninsula army revolts followed. By end 1826 only American colonies Spain held Cuba Puerto Rico. Napoleonic War left Spain economically ruined deeply divided politically unstable. 1830s 1840s Carlism reactionary legitimist movement supportive alternative Bourbon branch fought government forces supportive Queen Isabella II dynastic rights Carlist Wars. Government forces prevailed conflict between progressives moderates ended weak early constitutional period. 1868 Glorious Revolution followed 1868, 1874 progressive Sexenio Democrático including short-lived First Spanish Republic yielded stable monarchic period Restoration 1875, 1931. Late 19th century nationalist movements arose Philippines Cuba. 1895 1896 Cuban War Independence Philippine Revolution broke out eventually United States involved. Spanish-American War fought April August 1898 resulted Spain losing last vast colonial empire outside North Africa. El Desastre Disaster war became known Spain gave added impetus Generation 98. Although period around turn century one increasing prosperity 20th century brought little social peace. Spain played minor part scramble Africa remained neutral World War I. Heavy losses suffered colonial troops conflicts northern Morocco against Riffians forces brought discredit government undermined monarchy. Industrialisation development railways incipient capitalism developed several areas country particularly Barcelona labour movement socialist anarchist ideas. 1870 Barcelona Workers Congress 1888 Barcelona Universal Exposition good examples this. In 1879 Spanish Socialist Workers Party founded trade union linked party Unión General Trabajadores founded 1888. Anarcho-syndicalist trend labour movement Confederación Nacional Trabajo founded 1910 Federación Anarquista Ibérica founded 1927. Catalanism Vasquism alongside other nationalisms regionalisms Spain arose period Basque Nationalist Party formed 1895 Regionalist League Catalonia formed 1901. Political corruption repression weakened democratic system constitutional monarchy two-parties system July 1909 Tragic Week events repression exemplified social instability time La Canadiense strike 1919 led first law limiting working day eight hours. After period Crown-supported dictatorship 1923, 1931 first elections since 1923 largely understood plebiscite Monarchy took place the 12th of April 1931 municipal elections. These gave resounding victory Republican-Socialist candidacies large cities provincial capitals majority monarchist councilors rural areas king left country proclamation Republic the 14th of April ensued formation provisional government. Constitution country passed October 1931 following June 1931 Constituent general election series cabinets presided Manuel Azaña supported republican parties PSOE followed. Election held 1933 right triumphed 1936 left. During Second Republic great political social upheaval marked sharp radicalisation left right. Instances political violence during period included burning churches 1932 failed coup d'état José Sanjurjo Revolution 1934 numerous attacks rival political leaders. Other hand also during Second Republic important reforms modernise country initiated democratic constitution agrarian reform restructuring army political decentralisation women's right vote. Spanish Civil War broke out 1936: 17 the 18th of July part military carried out coup d'état triumphed only part country. Situation led civil war territory divided two zones one under authority Republican government counted outside support Soviet Union Mexico International Brigades other controlled putschists Nationalist rebel faction critically supported Nazi Germany Fascist Italy. Republic not supported Western powers due British-led policy non-intervention. General Francisco Franco sworn supreme leader rebels the 1st of October 1936. Uneasy relationship Republican government grassroots anarchists partial social revolution ensued. Civil war viciously fought many atrocities committed sides. War claimed lives over 500,000 people caused flight half-million citizens from country. On the 1st of April 1939 five months beginning World War II rebel side led Franco emerged victorious imposing dictatorship whole country. Thousands imprisoned after civil war Francoist concentration camps. Regime remained nominally neutral much Second World War sympathetic Axis provided Nazi Wehrmacht Spanish volunteers Eastern Front. Only legal party under Franco dictatorship Falange Española Tradicionalista JONS formed 1937 upon merging Fascist Falange Española de las JONS Carlist traditionalists rest right-wing groups supporting rebels added name Movimiento Nacional sometimes understood wider structure FET y de las JONS proper largely imposed later's name official documents along 1950s. After war Spain politically economically isolated kept United Nations. Changed 1955 Cold War period strategically important US establish military presence Iberian Peninsula counter possible move Soviet Union Mediterranean basin. US Cold War strategic priorities included dissemination American educational ideas foster modernisation expansion. 1960s Spain registered unprecedented rate economic growth propelled industrialisation mass internal migration rural areas Madrid Barcelona Basque Country creation mass tourism industry. Franco rule characterised authoritarianism promotion unitary national identity National Catholicism discriminatory language policies.

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• 5. Democratic Transition And European Integration

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  In 1962 group politicians involved opposition Franco regime inside country exile met congress European Movement Munich made resolution favour democracy. With Franco death November 1975 Juan Carlos succeeded position King Spain head state accordance Francoist law. Approval new Spanish Constitution 1978 restoration State devolved much authority regions created internal organisation based autonomous communities. Spanish 1977 Amnesty Law let people Franco regime continue institutions consequences even perpetrators some crimes during transition democracy Massacre the 3rd of March 1976 Vitoria 1977 Massacre Atocha. Basque Country moderate Basque nationalism coexisted radical nationalist movement led armed organisation ETA until latter dissolution May 2018. Group formed 1959 Franco rule continued wage violent campaign restoration democracy return large measure regional autonomy. the 23rd of February 1981 rebel elements security forces seized Cortes attempt impose military-backed government. King Juan Carlos took personal command military successfully ordered coup plotters via national television surrender. During 1980s democratic restoration made possible growing open society. New cultural movements freedom appeared La Movida Madrileña. May 1982 Spain joined NATO followed referendum strong social opposition. That year Spanish Socialist Workers Party PSOE came power first left-wing government 43 years. In 1986 Spain joined European Economic Community later became European Union. PSOE replaced government Partido Popular PP 1996 scandals around participation government Felipe González Dirty war against ETA. On the 1st of January 2002 Spain fully adopted euro experienced strong economic growth well above EU average early 2000s. However well-publicised concerns issued many economic commentators height boom warned extraordinary property prices high foreign trade deficit likely lead painful economic collapse. In 2002 Prestige oil spill occurred big ecological consequences along Spain Atlantic coastline. In 2003 José María Aznar supported US president George W Bush Iraq War strong movement against war rose Spanish society. March 2004 local Islamist terrorist group inspired Al-Qaeda carried largest terrorist attack Western European history killed 191 people wounded more than 1,800 others bombing commuter trains Madrid. Though initial suspicions focused Basque terrorist group ETA evidence Islamist involvement soon emerged. Because proximity 2004 Spanish general election issue responsibility quickly became political controversy main competing parties PP PSOE exchanging accusations handling incident. PSOE won election led José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero. Early 2000s proportion Spain foreign born population increased rapidly during economic boom then declined due 2008 financial crisis. In 2005 Spanish government legalised same sex marriage becoming third country worldwide do so. Decentralisation supported much resistance Constitutional Court conservative opposition gender politics like quotas law against gender violence. Government talks happened group announced permanent cease violence 2010. Bursting Spanish property bubble 2008 led 2008, 2014 Spanish financial crisis. High levels unemployment cuts government spending corruption Royal family People Party served backdrop 2011, 12 Spanish protests. Catalan independentism also rose. In 2011 Mariano Rajoy conservative People Party won election 44.6% votes. Prime minister implemented austerity measures EU bailout EU Stability Growth Pact. the 19th of June 2014 monarch Juan Carlos abdicated favour son Felipe VI. October 2017 Catalan independence referendum held Catalan parliament voted unilaterally declare independence from Spain form Catalan Republic day Senate discussing approving direct rule Catalonia called Spanish Prime Minister. Same day Senate granted power impose direct rule Rajoy dissolved Catalan parliament called new election. No country recognised Catalonia separate state. June 2018 Congress Deputies passed motion no-confidence Rajoy replaced PSOE leader Pedro Sánchez. In 2019 first ever coalition government Spain formed between PSOE Unidas Podemos. Between 2018 2024 Spain faced institutional crisis surrounding mandate General Council Judiciary CGPJ finally mandate got renovated. January 2020 COVID-19 virus confirmed spread Spain causing life expectancy drop more than year. European Commission economic recovery package Next Generation EU created support EU member states recover COVID-19 pandemic use period 2021, 2026. March 2021 Spain became sixth nation world make active euthanasia legal. Following general election the 23rd of July 2023 Prime Minister Pedro Sánchez once again formed coalition government time Sumar successors Unidas Podemos. In 2024 first non-independentist Catalan regional president over decade Salvador Illa elected normalising constitutional institutional relations national regional administrations. According latest polls only 17.3% Catalans feel themselves only Catalan. 46% Catalans answer as Spanish Catalan while 21.8% more Catalan Spanish. According 2024 poll University Barcelona over 50% Catalans vote against independence less than 40% vote favour.

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• 6. Modern Economy And Social Challenges

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  Spain has mixed economy combines elements free-market capitalism social welfare state intervention. One 19 countries nominal gross domestic product GDP exceeding $1 trillion per year ranking 12th largest worldwide fourth largest both European Union eurozone. Spain classified high-income economy World Bank advanced economy International Monetary Fund. As 2024 fastest growing major advanced economy world growing nearly four times higher eurozone average. Spain began industrialising late 18th century albeit gradually unevenly other European countries industry limited mostly Catalonia primarily textile manufacturing Basque Country iron steel production. Overall economic growth slower most major western European countries remained relatively underdeveloped early 20th century. Spanish Civil War followed failed autarkic policies caused prolonged stagnation until late 1950s when development plans initiated by technocrats brought rapid growth known miracle years. Industrialization concentrated regions like Catalonia and Basque Country creating stark regional disparities. Mass tourism emerged as key economic driver transforming coastal areas into global destinations. Property bubble inflated during early 2000s fueled by cheap credit and speculative investment. Bursting bubble triggered severe banking crisis requiring international bailouts in 2012. Unemployment rates soared reaching over 26% nationally with youth unemployment exceeding 50%. Austerity measures imposed EU Stability Growth Pact sparked widespread protests including 15-M movement. Corruption scandals involving Royal family People Party eroded public trust. Regional tensions intensified particularly Catalonia where independence referendum held October 2017 led constitutional crisis. Madrid dissolved Catalan parliament called snap elections. Political fragmentation resulted multiple coalition governments since 2015. PSOE formed first national coalition Unidas Podemos 2019 renewed partnership Sumar 2023. Social progress marked legalization same-sex marriage 2005 gender equality laws active euthanasia 2021. LGBT acceptance rated highest Europe Pew Research 2013 survey showed 88% Spaniards support homosexuality. Women representation Congress Deputies reached 39.1% September 2018 Senate 39.9%. Violence against women addressed Gender Equality Act 2007. Immigration patterns shifted dramatically post-2000 boom attracting millions Latin American Eastern European workers. Post-crisis demographic shifts reversed migration flows returning many to home countries. Environmental challenges include water scarcity desertification increasing frequency heatwaves droughts. Spain one countries most affected climate change Europe promoting renewable energy transition solar wind power. Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score 4.23/10 ranking 130th globally out 172 countries. Within European territory largest number plant species 7,600 vascular plants all European countries. 17.804 billion trees average 284 million more grow each year.

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• 7. Geography And Natural Diversity

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  At area Spain world fiftieth largest country Europe fourth largest country. At elevation Mount Teide Tenerife highest mountain peak Spain third largest volcano world base. Spain transcontinental country having territory both Europe Africa lies between latitudes 27° 44° N longitudes 19° W 5° E. West border Portugal south Gibraltar Morocco through exclaves North Africa Ceuta Melilla peninsula Vélez de la Gomera. Northeast along Pyrenees mountain range bordered France Andorra. Along Pyrenees Girona small exclave town called Llívia surrounded France. Extending length Portugal-Spain border longest uninterrupted border within European Union. Islands include Balearic Islands Mediterranean Sea Canary Islands Atlantic Ocean number uninhabited islands Mediterranean side Strait Gibraltar known plazas soberanía places sovereignty territories under Spanish sovereignty such Chafarinas Islands Alhucemas. Isle Alborán located Mediterranean between Spain North Africa administered municipality Almería Andalusia little Pheasant Island River Bidasoa Spanish-French condominium. Eleven major islands Spain all having own governing bodies Cabildos insulares Canaries Consells insulars Baleares. These islands specifically mentioned Spanish Constitution fixing Senatorial representation Ibiza Formentera grouped together form Pityusic islands part Balearic archipelago. Islands include Tenerife Gran Canaria Lanzarote Fuerteventura La Palma La Gomera El Hierro Canarian archipelago Mallorca Ibiza Menorca Formentera Balearic archipelago. Mainland Spain rather mountainous landmass dominated high plateaus mountain chains. After Pyrenees main mountain ranges Cordillera Cantábrica Cantabrian Range Sistema Ibérico Iberian System Sistema Central Central System Montes Toledo Sierra Morena Sistema Bético Baetic System highest peak Mulhacén located Sierra Nevada highest elevation Iberian Peninsula. Highest point Spain Teide active volcano Canary Islands. Meseta Central often translated Inner Plateau vast plateau heart peninsular Spain split two by Sistema Central. Several major rivers Spain Tagus Tajo Ebro Guadiana Douro Duero Guadalquivir Júcar Segura Turia Minho Miño. Alluvial plains found along coast largest Guadalquivir Andalusia. Three main climatic zones separated geographical situation orographic conditions Mediterranean climate characterised warm/hot dry summers predominant country. Two varieties Csa Csb according Köppen climate classification. Csa zone associated areas hot summers predominant Southern Mediterranean except southeastern Southern Atlantic coast inland throughout Andalusia Extremadura much centre country. Some areas Csa mainly inland such parts Castilla-La-Mancha Extremadura Madrid some parts Andalusia cool winters continental influences regions Mediterranean climate close sea mild winters. Csb zone warm rather hot summers extends additional cool-winter areas not typically associated Mediterranean climate western Castile-León northeastern Castilla-La Mancha northern Madrid rainier areas notably Galicia. Semi-arid climate BSk BSh predominant southeastern quarter country widespread other areas covers Region Murcia southern central-eastern Valencia eastern Andalusia various areas Castilla-La-Mancha Madrid some areas Extremadura Further north upper mid reaches Ebro valley crosses southern Navarre central Aragon western Catalonia found small area northern Andalusia small area central Castilla-León. Precipitation limited dry season extending beyond summer average temperature depends altitude latitude. Oceanic climate Cfb located northern quarter country especially Atlantic region Basque Country Cantabria Asturias partly Galicia Castile-León. Also found northern Navarre most highlands areas along Iberian System Pyrenean valleys humid subtropical variant Cfa occurs. Winter summer temperatures influenced ocean seasonal drought. Apart main types sub-types found alpine climate areas very high altitude humid subtropical northeast Spain continental climates Dfc Dfb Dsc Dsb Pyrenees Cantabrian Range Central System Sierra Nevada Iberian System typical desert climate BWk BWh zone Almería Murcia eastern Canary Islands. Low-lying areas Canary Islands average above during coolest month thus having influences tropical climate properly classified tropical climates AEMET aridity high belonging arid semi-arid climate. Spain one countries most affected climate change Europe extreme events heatwaves becoming increasingly frequent. Country experiencing more episodes drought increased severity episodes Water resources severely affected various climate change scenarios mitigate effects promoting energy transition renewable energies solar wind energy.

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