Skip to content
— CH. 1 · ORIGINS AND HOMELAND —

Turkic peoples

~3 min read · Ch. 1 of 6
6 sections

  • In the Altai-Sayan region, a compact area spanning northern and western Mongolia and Tuva, Proto-Turkic speakers first emerged as hunter-gatherers and farmers before shifting to nomadic pastoralism. Genetic studies point to Ancient Northeast Asian ancestry from the Amur river basin, with some West Eurasian admixture appearing later through contact with Iranian-speaking herders of the Eastern Steppe. By 2200 BC, these ancestors migrated westward into Mongolia, adopting a lifestyle borrowed from neighboring groups while retaining their distinct linguistic roots. The ultimate Proto-Turkic homeland likely lay in this eastern Mongolian zone, where all haplogroups could have intermingled rather than spreading across vast distances immediately.

  • The name Turk appears in Old Turkic inscriptions as Türük or Kök Türk, meaning sky or blue-grey, though its etymological roots remain debated among scholars. Some historians suggest it derives from a word for helmet, referencing the shape of the Altai Mountains where the Ashina clan once worked iron. Others argue it means strong, powerful, or gathered, reflecting the confederated nature of early tribes. The term was initially reserved exclusively for the Göktürks by Chinese, Tibetan, and even Turkic-speaking Uyghurs before becoming a generic label for Inner Asians. Medieval Muslim writers often used Turk as a blanket term for any Inner Asian tribe regardless of language, blurring distinctions that modern linguists now carefully maintain.

  • DNA studies reveal that early Turkic peoples were not a uniform group but comprised heterogeneous elements with varying degrees of East Asian and West Eurasian ancestry. Empress Ashina, a royal Göktürk buried in Xianyang around 568 AD, possessed approximately 96 to 98 percent Ancient Northeast Asian autosomal ancestry with only 2 to 4 percent West Eurasian origin. In contrast, later Central Steppe Türk samples show roughly 37.8 percent West Eurasian ancestry alongside 62.2 percent Ancient Northeast Asian components. This genetic heterogeneity persisted through centuries of expansion, as Turks intermixed with Uralic hunter-gatherers, Mongolic nomads, Indo-European speakers, and other indigenous groups across Eurasia.

  • The First Turkic Khaganate rose in the 6th century when the Ashina clan conquered the Tiele people on behalf of their Rouran overlords before overthrowing them entirely. By 545 and 546 AD, Sogdian diplomats represented China in embassies to these emerging Türks seeking silk goods and trade relationships. The Göktürks established the first state known by the name Turk, ruling from the Altai Mountains southward while retaining animistic-shamanistic traditions that evolved into Tengriism. A civil war between 581 and 603 split the empire into Western and Eastern Khaganates, with the latter falling to Han-Chinese forces in 630 before a Second Turkic Khaganate emerged until replaced by the Uyghur Khaganate in 744.

  • Turkic migrations carried Oghuz tribes westward into Anatolia, Iran, and Europe, establishing empires like the Seljuks who won the Battle of Manzikert in 1071 against the Byzantine Empire. The Ghaznavid dynasty ruled large parts of Iran, Afghanistan, and northwest India from 977 to 1186 as Persianized Muslim rulers of Central Asian origin. Later, the Ottoman Empire dominated the Middle East, southeastern Europe, and northern Africa after centuries of gradual expansion following the decline of the Seljuk state. These movements transformed the demographic landscape of Eurasia, blending Turkic languages with local cultures while spreading Islam across vast territories.

  • The collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 led five Turkic states, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan, to gain independence for the first time in modern history. Turkey remained the only fully independent Turkic nation throughout most of the 20th century before diplomatic relations expanded rapidly among newly sovereign countries. Political meetings increased over decades, resulting in organizations like TÜRKSOY established in 1993 and the Turkic Council founded in 2009, later renamed the Organization of Turkic States in 2021. Regions such as Tatarstan, Tuva, and Yakutia stayed within the Russian Federation, while Chinese Turkechan remained part of the People's Republic of China.

Up Next

KipchaksMongols

Continue Browsing

Nomadic groups in Eurasia

Common questions

Where did Proto-Turkic speakers first emerge as hunter-gatherers and farmers?

Proto-Turkic speakers first emerged in the Altai-Sayan region, a compact area spanning northern and western Mongolia and Tuva. Genetic studies point to Ancient Northeast Asian ancestry from the Amur river basin with some West Eurasian admixture appearing later through contact with Iranian-speaking herders of the Eastern Steppe.

What does the name Turk mean in Old Turkic inscriptions?

The name Turk appears in Old Turkic inscriptions as Türük or Kök Türk, meaning sky or blue-grey. Some historians suggest it derives from a word for helmet referencing the shape of the Altai Mountains where the Ashina clan once worked iron while others argue it means strong, powerful, or gathered reflecting the confederated nature of early tribes.

How much Ancient Northeast Asian autosomal ancestry did Empress Ashina possess around 568 AD?

Empress Ashina possessed approximately 96 to 98 percent Ancient Northeast Asian autosomal ancestry with only 2 to 4 percent West Eurasian origin when she was buried in Xianyang around 568 AD. In contrast, later Central Steppe Türk samples show roughly 37.8 percent West Eurasian ancestry alongside 62.2 percent Ancient Northeast Asian components.

When did the First Turkic Khaganate rise and what happened during its civil war between 581 and 603?

The First Turkic Khaganate rose in the 6th century when the Ashina clan conquered the Tiele people on behalf of their Rouran overlords before overthrowing them entirely. A civil war between 581 and 603 split the empire into Western and Eastern Khaganates with the latter falling to Han-Chinese forces in 630 before a Second Turkic Khaganate emerged until replaced by the Uyghur Khaganate in 744.

Which empires were established by Oghuz tribes migrating westward into Anatolia Iran and Europe?

Turkic migrations carried Oghuz tribes westward into Anatolia Iran and Europe establishing empires like the Seljuks who won the Battle of Manzikert in 1071 against the Byzantine Empire. The Ghaznavid dynasty ruled large parts of Iran Afghanistan and northwest India from 977 to 1186 as Persianized Muslim rulers of Central Asian origin while later the Ottoman Empire dominated the Middle East southeastern Europe and northern Africa after centuries of gradual expansion following the decline of the Seljuk state.

When did five Turkic states gain independence for the first time in modern history after the collapse of the Soviet Union?

The collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 led five Turkic states Azerbaijan Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan to gain independence for the first time in modern history. Political meetings increased over decades resulting in organizations like TÜRKSOY established in 1993 and the Turkic Council founded in 2009 later renamed the Organization of Turkic States in 2021.

See all questions about Turkic peoples →

All sources

203 references cited across the entry

  1. 1citationHandbook of Language and Ethnic Identity: The Success-Failure Continuum in Language and Ethnic Identity EffortsJala Garibova — Oxford University Press — 2011
  2. 2citationFundamentals of World Regional GeographyJoseph J. Hobbs — Cengage — 2017
  3. 3webUzbekistan19 August 2021
  4. 4encyclopediaAzerbaijani (people)
  5. 5inlineLibrary of Congress – Federal Research Division – Country Profile: Iran, May 2008, page 5
  6. 6webKazakhstan
  7. 7webChina
  8. 8webAzerbaijan
  9. 9webCensus 2021: 84.6% of population define themselves as Bulgarians, 8.4% Turks, 4.4% Roma24 November 2022
  10. 10webAfghanistan
  11. 11webUzbeks and Turkmens – Minorities and indigenous peoples in AfghanistanWorld Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples — 19 June 2015
  12. 12bookThe Statesman's Yearbook 2007: The Politics, Cultures and Economies of the WorldB. Turner — Springer — 7 February 2017
  13. 13bookCommunicating with Asia: The Future of English as a Global LanguageGerhard Leitner et al. — Cambridge University Press — 11 January 2016
  14. 14bookMulticultural Manners: Essential Rules of Etiquette for the 21st CenturyNorine Dresser — Wiley — 7 January 2011
  15. 15newsUnpublished Census Provides Rare and Unvarnished Look at Turkmenistan
  16. 16newsFirst (actual) demographic data for Turkmenistan released
  17. 17webKyrgyzstan
  18. 18citationManaging Diversity in Organizations: A Global PerspectiveMaría Triana — Taylor & Francis — 2017
  19. 19webIraq's Turkmens call for independent provinceWassim Bassem — Al-Monitor — 2016
  20. 20webTajikistan
  21. 21webAll-Ukrainian population census 2001 – General results of the census – National composition of population2003
  22. 22inlineTRNC SPO, Economic and Social Indicators 2014, pages=2–3
  23. 23webMongolia
  24. 24web2020 POPULATION AND HOUSING CENSUS OF MONGOLIA /summary/
  25. 25webLebanese Turks Seek Political and Social RecognitionAl-Akhbar
  26. 26webTension adds to existing wounds in Lebanon
  27. 27citationSyrian Turkmen refugees face double suffering in LebanonYusra Ahmed — Zaman Al Wasl — 2015
  28. 28webSyria's Turkmen Refugees Face Cruel Reality in Lebanon2015
  29. 29web2017 Anuarul Statisitc al Republicii MoldovaBiroul Național de Statistică al Republicii Moldova
  30. 30webNorth Macedonia
  31. 31webCensus of Population, Households and Dwellings in the Republic of Macedonia, 2002Republic of Macedonia State Statistical Office
  32. 32harvnbEncyclopedia Britannica. Turkic peoples
  33. 33harvnbYunusbayev et al. (2015) p. 1Yunusbayev et al. — 2015
  34. 34harvnbUchiyama, Gillam, Savelyev (2020)Uchiyama, Gillam, Savelyev — 2020
  35. 35harvnbLee, Kuang (2017)Lee, Kuang — 2017
  36. 36harvnbLee (2023) p. 4Lee — 2023
  37. 37webKultegin's Memorial Complex, TÜRIK BITIG
  38. 38webTonyukuk's Memorial Complex, TÜRIK BITIG
  39. 39journalThe Ethnogonic Tales of the TürksPeter B. Golden — 25 July 2018
  40. 40journalThe Historical Meaning of the Term Turk and the Nature of the Turkic Identity of the Chinggisid and Timurid Elites in Post-Mongol Central AsiaJoo-Yup Lee — 2016
  41. 41journalThe Khüis Tolgoi inscription – signs and soundsDieter Maue
  42. 42journalInterpretation of the Hüis Tolgoi InscriptionAlexander Vovin
  43. 43journalA Sketch of the Earliest Mongolic Language: the Brāhmī Bugut and Khüis Tolgoi InscriptionsAlexander Vivin — 2019
  44. 44bookEncyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania, p. 826Barbara A. West — Infobase — 19 May 2010
  45. 45web新亞研究所 – 典籍資料庫
  46. 46eb1911Ellis Hovell Minns
  47. 47journalTürks and Iranians: Aspects of Türk and Khazaro-Iranian InteractionPeter B. Golden
  48. 48inline"Türk" in Turkish Etymological Dictionary, Sevan Nişanyan.
  49. 49inlineAmerican Heritage Dictionary (2000). The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition – "Turk"". bartleby.com. Retrieved 7 December 2006.
  50. 50inlineGolden, Peter B. "Some Thoughts on the Origins of the Turks and the Shaping of the Turkic Peoples". (2006) In: Contact and Exchange in the Ancient World. Ed. Victor H. Mair. University of Hawaiʻi Pres
  51. 51bookTürk Dunyası Sosyal Bilimler - SempozyumuHakan Aydemir — Ege University — 2–3 December 2022
  52. 52inlineTheobald, Ulrich (2012). "Xiajiasi 黠戛斯, Qirqiz" for ChinaKnowledge.de – An Encyclopaedia on Chinese History, Literature and Art
  53. 53inlineHyun Jin Kim: Huns, Rome and the Birth of Europe. Cambridge University Press, 2013. pp.175–176.
  54. 54harvnbLee, Kuang (2017) p. 200Lee, Kuang — 2017
  55. 55inlineXu Elina-Qian, Historical Development of the Pre-Dynastic Khitan, University of Helsinki, 2005. p. 176.
  56. 56harvnbDickens (2018) p. 1346Dickens — 2018
  57. 57inlinePulleyblank, Edwin G. (2000). "Ji 姬 and Jiang 姜: The Role of Exogamic Clans in the Organization of the Zhou Polity", Early China. p. 20
  58. 58thesisThe Making of the Tuoba Northern Wei: Constructing Material Cultural Expressions in the Northern Wei Pingcheng Period (398–494 CE)Chin Yin Tseng — University of Oxford — 2012
  59. 60inlineTurkic Language family tree entries provide the information on the Turkic-speaking populations and regions.
  60. 61bookLanguages of the World, Third EditionKenneth Katzner — Routledge, an imprint of Taylor & Francis Books Ltd. — March 2002
  61. 62inlineTurkic peoples, Encyclopædia Britannica, Online Academic Edition, 2008
  62. 63journalReview of Robbeets, Martine (2015): Diachrony of verb morphology. Japanese and the Transeurasian languagesJosé Andrés Alonso De la Fuente — 2016
  63. 64harvnbTekin (1993) p. 1Tekin — 1993
  64. 65journalAncient Genome of Empress Ashina reveals the Northeast Asian origin of Göktürk KhanateXiaomin Yang et al. — 2023-01-09
  65. 66journalThe Genetic Legacy of the Expansion of Turkic-Speaking Nomads across EurasiaBayazit Yunusbayev et al. — 21 April 2015
  66. 67citationStudying the Near and Middle East at the Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton, 1935–2018Peter B. Golden — Gorgias Press — 27 April 2018
  67. 68harvnbJanhunen (2003) p. 203Janhunen — 2003
  68. 69journalGenomic insights into the formation of human populations in East AsiaChuan-Chao Wang et al. — March 2021
  69. 70journalDiachrony of verb morphology: Japanese and the Transeurasian languagesJosé Andrés Alonso de la Fuente — 1 January 2016
  70. 71journalNew trends in European studies on the Altaic problemAnna Dybo — 1 January 2017
  71. 72journalExtensive ethnolinguistic diversity at the crossroads of North China and South Siberia reflects multiple sources of genetic diversityGuang-Lin He et al. — January 2022
  72. 73journalOn The Genetic Continuity of the Iron Age Pazyryk Culture: Geographic Distributions of the Paternal and Maternal Lineages from the Ak-Alakha-1 BurialDmitrii Tikhonov et al. — 2019
  73. 74journal137 ancient human genomes from across the Eurasian steppesPeter de Barros Damgaard et al. — May 2018
  74. 75journalGenetic continuity of Indo-Iranian speakers since the Iron Age in southern Central AsiaPerle Guarino-Vignon et al. — 14 January 2022
  75. 76journalThe Genetic Echo of the Tarim Mummies in Modern Central AsiansShan-Shan Dai et al. — 25 August 2022
  76. 77harvnbYang, Meng, Zhang (2023)Yang, Meng, Zhang — 2023
  77. 78journalA Dynamic 6,000-Year Genetic History of Eurasia's Eastern Steppe.Jeong C, Wang K, Wilkin S, Taylor WT, Miller BK, Bemmann JH — 2020
  78. 80journalThe 'High Carts': A Turkish-Speaking People before the TürksEdwin G. Pulleyblank — Academia Sinica — 1991
  79. 82web丁零—铁勒的西迁及其所建西域政权
  80. 83journalThe Research on the Identification Between Tiele (鐵勒) and the Oghuric TribesCheng Fangyi
  81. 84book"A Brief Description of the Early and Medieval Türks" in Turkic Christians in Central Asia and China (5th – 14th Centuries), Studies in Turkic philologyLi Tang — Minzu University Press
  82. 85inlineRachel Lung, Interpreters in Early Imperial China, John Benjamins Publishing Company, 2011, p. 48 "Türk, or Türküt, refers to a state of Ašina clan (of Tiele 鐵勒 tribe by ancestral lineage)"
  83. 86bookChina's Imperial Past: An Introduction to Chinese History and CultureCharles O. Hucker — Stanford University Press — 1975
  84. 87journalEarly nomads of the Eastern Steppe and their tentative connections in the WestAlexander Savelyev et al. — 10 May 2020
  85. 88inlineSilk-Road:Xiongnu
  86. 89webAn Introduction to the Turkic Tribes
  87. 90bookThe Eastern Frontier: Limits of Empire in Late Antique and Early Medieval Central AsiaRobert Haug — Bloomsbury Publishing — 27 June 2019
  88. 91bookThe Cambridge Illustrated History of ChinaPatricia Buckley Ebrey — Cambridge University Press — 2010
  89. 92harvnbSavelyev, Jeong (2020)Savelyev, Jeong — 2020
  90. 93inlineMA Li-qing On the new evidence on Xiongnu's writings. (Wanfang Data: Digital Periodicals, 2004)
  91. 94inlinePaola Demattè Writing the Landscape: the Petroglyphs of Inner Mongolia and Ningxia Province (China). (Paper presented at the First International Conference of Eurasian Archaeology, University of Chica
  92. 95bookThe Eastern Frontier: Limits of Empire in Late Antique and Early Medieval Central AsiaRobert Haug — Bloomsbury Publishing — 27 June 2019
  93. 96bookFrom the Khan's Oven: Studies on the History of Central Asian Religions in Honor of Devin DeWeeseEren Tasar et al. — BRILL — 11 October 2021
  94. 101inlineGolden, Peter B. (August 2018). "The Ethnogonic Tales of the Türks". The Medieval History Journal, 21 (2): p. 298 of 291–327, fn. 36.
  95. 103bookTürk Tarih KongresiTürk Tarih Kurumu — 1999
  96. 104bookGenghis Khan: His Conquests, His Empire, His LegacyFrank McLynn — Hachette Books — 14 July 2015
  97. 105bookThe Story of RussiaOrlando Figes — Metropolitan Books — 20 September 2022
  98. 106bookA History of Inner AsiaBranko Soucek et al. — Cambridge University Press — 17 February 2000
  99. 107bookChina's Last Nomads: History and Culture of China's KazaksLinda Benson et al. — Routledge — 2016
  100. 108harvnbBenson, Svanberg (2016) p. 65Benson, Svanberg — 2016
  101. 109bookMaking Sense of World HistoryRick Szostak — Routledge — 22 October 2020
  102. 110bookReligions of Iran: From Prehistory to the PresentRichard Foltz — Simon and Schuster — 1 November 2013
  103. 111bookCentral Asia in World HistoryPeter B. Golden — Oxford University Press — 14 January 2011
  104. 112bookFrom the Khitans to the Jurchens & Mongols: A History of Barbarians in Triangle Wars & Quartet ConflictsHong Yuan — 14 November 2022
  105. 113bookHistory of Central Asia, the: 4-volume setChristoph Baumer — 18 April 2018
  106. 114bookGoverning China: 150-1850John W. Dardess — 10 September 2010
  107. 115bookWarfare in Chinese HistoryHans van de Ven — 26 July 2021
  108. 117inlineAccording to Old History of the Five Dynasties, vol. 99, and New History of the Five Dynasties, vol. 10. Liu Zhiyuan was of Shatuo origin. According to Wudai Huiyao, vol. 1 Liu Zhiyuan's great-great-g
  109. 119bookТруды по истории и этническому составу тюркских племенАристов Н. А. — Илим — 2003
  110. 120bookОчир А.КИГИ РАН — 2016
  111. 121webShatuo Türks 沙陀突厥 (www.chinaknowledge.de)Ulrich Theobald
  112. 122bookArtifacts from the Ancient Silk RoadWilliam E. Mierse — ABC-CLIO — 31 December 2022
  113. 123bookChina's Forgotten People: Xinjiang, Terror and the Chinese StateNick Holdstock — Bloomsbury Publishing — 13 June 2019
  114. 124bookHungarians and Europe in the Early Middle Ages: An Introduction to Early Hungarian HistoryAndrás Róna-Tas — Central European University Press — 1 March 1999
  115. 125bookA Global History of War: From Assyria to the Twenty-First CenturyGŽrard Chaliand et al. — Univ of California Press — 17 November 2014
  116. 126bookByzantium and the Pechenegs: The Historiography of the ProblemMykola Melnyk — BRILL — 2022
  117. 127bookAncient Irrigation Systems of the Aral Sea Area: Ancient Irrigation Systems of the Aral Sea AreaBoris V. Adrianov et al. — Oxbow Books, Limited — 31 December 2013
  118. 128harvnbMelnyk (2022) p. 318Melnyk — 2022
  119. 129bookWinds of Jingjiao: Studies on Syriac Christianity in China and Central AsiaLi Tang et al. — LIT Verlag Münster — 2016
  120. 130journalTibetan as a "model language" in the Amdo Sprachbund: evidence from Salar and WutunErika Sandman et al. — 2016
  121. 131journalTibetan as a "model language" in the Amdo Sprachbund: Evidence from Salar and WutunErika Sandman et al. — 23 October 2023
  122. 132thesisA Grammar of WutunErika Sandman — University of Helsinki
  123. 133journalThe Salar Khazui SystemDeyan Han — O. Harrassowitz — 1999
  124. 134bookThe Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political ThoughtGerhard Böwering et al. — Princeton University Press — 1 January 2012
  125. 135inlineIslamic Central Asia: an anthology of historical sources, Ed. Scott Cameron Levi and Ron Sela, (Indiana University Press, 2010), 83;The Ghaznavids were a dynasty of Turkic slave-soldiers..., "Ghaznavi
  126. 136inlineC.E. Bosworth, "Ghaznavids" in Encyclopaedia Iranica, Online Edition 2006
  127. 137inlineEncyclopædia Britannica, "Ghaznavid Dynasty", Online Edition 2007
  128. 138inline"Aḥmad of Niǧde's al-Walad al-Shafīq and the Seljuk Past", A. C. S. Peacock, Anatolian Studies, Vol. 54, (2004), 97. Meisami, Julie Scott, Persian Historiography to the End of the Twelfth Century, (Ed
  129. 139journalReview: The History of the Seljuq Turkmens: The History of the Seljuq TurkmensP. Jackson — Oxford Centre for Islamic Studies — 2002
  130. 140bookThe Ottoman 'Wild West': The Balkan Frontier in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth CenturiesNikolay Antov — Cambridge University Press — 28 December 2017
  131. 141bookEntrepreneurial Renaissance: Cities Striving Towards an Era of Rebirth and RevivalPiero Formica — Springer — 5 April 2017
  132. 142bookInformation: A Historical CompanionAnn Blair et al. — Princeton University Press — 26 January 2021
  133. 143bookMuslim WorldH. Scheel et al. — Brill Archive — 1981
  134. 144inlineMichael Axworthy. Iran: Empire of the Mind: A History from Zoroaster to the Present Day, Penguin UK, 6 November 2008.
  135. 145inlineTimothy C. Dowling. Russia at War: From the Mongol Conquest to Afghanistan, Chechnya, and Beyond, pp 728–730 ABC-CLIO, 2 December 2014
  136. 146inlineEncyclopædia Britannica article:Mughal Dynasty
  137. 147inlineEncyclopædia Britannica Article:Babur
  138. 148webthe Mughal dynasty
  139. 149webKamat's Potpourri
  140. 151webThe Pechenegs
  141. 152bookCultura TurcicaTürk Kültürünü Araştırma Enstitüsü — 1964
  142. 153webTurkic Council's name changed to Organization of Turkic States
  143. 154webThe Countenance of the otherMichael Alram et al. — Kunsthistorisches Museum Vienna
  144. 155webThe Countenance of the other (The Coins of the Huns and Western Turks in Central Asia and India) 2012–2013 exhibit: 13. THE TURK SHAHIS IN KABULISTANMichael Alram et al. — Kunsthistorisches Museum Vienna
  145. 156journalThe Ethnogonic Tales of the TürksPeter Golden — 2018
  146. 157bookLinguistic Mysteries of Ethnonyms in Inner AsiaPenglin Wang — Lexington — 2018
  147. 158bookA History of Pre-Islamic and Early-Islamic Turkish CultureEmel Esin — Ünal Matbaasi — 1980
  148. 159bookAl-Hind: The Slavic Kings and the Islamic conquest, 11th–13th centuriesAndré Wink — BRILL — 2002
  149. 160bookMongols, Turks, and Others: Eurasian Nomads and the Sedentary WorldReuven Amitai et al. — Brill — 2005
  150. 161journalThe Imperial Titles on the Coins of the Western Turkic QaghanateGaybulla Babayar — Yangi Nashr — 2013
  151. 162journalLe Palais ghaznévide de Lashkari BazarDaniel Schlumberger — 1952
  152. 163inlineYouyang Zazu "vol. 4" txt: "堅昆部落 ... 其人髮黃, 目綠, 赤髭髯"
  153. 165bookThe history of women's mosques in Chinese Islam: a mosque of their ownMaria Jaschok — Taylor and Francis — 2013
  154. 166bookRoutledge Handbook of Race and Ethnicity in AsiaMichael Weiner — Routledge — 2021
  155. 167bookThe Decline of Medieval Hellenism in Asia Minor and the Process of Islamization from the Eleventh through the Fifteenth CenturySperos Jr Vryonis — University of California Press — 1971
  156. 168webAbout :: TURKSOYOrhan Polat
  157. 169webCultural Capital of the Turkic World 2016: Sheki :: TURKSOYOrhan Polat
  158. 170newsUzbekistan Officially Applies For Membership In Turkic Council13 September 2019
  159. 171webTurkic Council reforms into Organization of Turkic States13 November 2021
  160. 172newsTurkish Cyprus gains Organization of Turkic States observer status11 November 2022
  161. 173newsOrganization of Turkic States pledges observer status for Turkish Cyprus – Türkiye News11 November 2022
  162. 174web"Şeyxülislam qeyd edib ki, Azərbaycanda 35 faiz sünni, 65 faiz isə şiə məzhəbinə mənsub…"
  163. 175webReligionAdministrative Department of the President of the Republic of Azerbaijan — Presidential Library
  164. 176bookFood on the MoveOxford Symposium on Food and Cookery — 1996
  165. 177webHistory of Buddhism among the Turkic People
  166. 178webBuddhism history in Kazakhstan · · "Kazakhstan History" portal
  167. 179web关于回鹘摩尼教史的几个问题
  168. 180web元明时期的新疆藏传佛教
  169. 181web回鹘文《陶师本生》及其特点
  170. 182web回鹘观音信仰考
  171. 183web回鶻彌勒信仰考
  172. 184bookEncyclopedia of the Stateless Nations: S-ZJames Minahan et al. — Greenwood Publishing Group — 2002
  173. 185inlineTurkic peoples' road to Islam. Daily Sabah. Retrieved 21 May 2024
  174. 186inlineMenz, Astrid. (2007). The Gagauz Between Christianity and Turkishness. 10.5771/9783956506925-123.
  175. 187bookEthnic Groups of Europe: An EncyclopediaJeffrey Cole — ABC-CLIO — 2011
  176. 188webThe Gagauz: 'Christian Turks' between two worldsMichael Lipka — TRT World — 22 May 2022
  177. 189inlineGuide to Russia:Chuvash
  178. 190web景教艺术在西域之发现
  179. 191inline高昌回鹘与环塔里木多元文化的融合
  180. 192web唐代中围景教与景教本部教会的关系
  181. 193web景教在西域的传播
  182. 194web新闻_星岛环球网
  183. 195web7–11 世紀景教在陸上絲綢之路的傳播
  184. 196bookIslamic peoples of the Soviet Union: with an appendix on the non-Muslim Turkic peoples of the Soviet Union: an historical and statistical handbookShirin Akiner — KPI — 1986
  185. 197bookIslamic Peoples Of The Soviet UnionShirin Akiner — Routledge — 1986
  186. 198bookRussia and Islam: A Historical SurveyGalina M. Yemelianova — Palgrave — 2002
  187. 199newsKyrgyz Religious Hatred Trial Throws Spotlight On Ancient CreedGulaiym Ashakeeva et al. — February 2012
  188. 200webReligion in Kazakhstan
  189. 201bookThe War on the Uyghurs: China's Internal Campaign against a Muslim MinoritySean R. Roberts — Princeton University Press — 8 September 2020
  190. 202bookIslam in ChinaJames Frankel — Bloomsbury Publishing — 17 June 2021
  191. 203bookFrom Mahmud Kaşgari to Evliya ÇelebiRobert Dankoff — Isis Press — 2008
  192. 204journalKāšġarī on the Beliefs and Superstitions of the TurksRobert Dankoff — Jan–Mar 1975
  193. 205bookThe Encyclopaedia of IslamHamilton Alexander Rosskeen Gibb et al. — Brill — 1998
  194. 206bookFrom Mahmud Kaşgari to Evliya ÇelebiRobert Dankoff — Isis Press — 2008
  195. 207bookEarly Mystics in Turkish LiteratureMehmet Fuat Köprülü et al. — Psychology Press — 2006
  196. 208journalHarvard Ukrainian Studies Eucharisterion: Essays Presented to Omeljan Pritsak on his Sixtieth Birthday by his Colleagues and StudentsHarvard University — 1980
  197. 209bookHarvard Ukrainian studiesHarvard Ukrainian Research Institute — Harvard Ukrainian Research Institute — 1980
  198. 210bookFrom Mahmud Kaşgari to Evliya ÇelebiRobert Dankoff — Isis Press — 2008
  199. 211bookUluslararası Türk Kültürü Kongresi BildirileriAtatürk Kültür Merkezi — 2009
  200. 212bookThe Amazons: Lives and Legends of Warrior Women across the Ancient WorldAdrienne Mayor — Princeton University Press. — 22 September 2014
  201. 213webTurkish Jereed (Javelin)Sansal Burak — All About Turkey
  202. 214bookEncyclopedia of World Sport: From Ancient Times to the Presentkaren Christensen et al. — Oxford University Press — 1999
  203. 215webДЖИГИТ