Cumans
The name Cuman appears in ancient Roman texts as the designation for a fortress or gate, not yet a people. Pliny the Elder described a place called Cumania erected to prevent tribes from passing through the Gates of Caucasus. Strabo later referred to this same location as Porta Cumana. The original meaning of the endonym remains unknown to modern scholars. Most Turkic-speaking groups and Muslim sources called them Qipchaqs instead. Armenians used the term Xartesk'ns to describe these nomads. Byzantine authors preferred the name Qumans while Rus' chronicles labeled them Polovtsians. In Turkic languages qu, qun, qūn, quman or qoman means pale, sallow, cream coloured, pale yellow, or yellowish grey. Imre Baski suggested the name might refer to hair color, horse color, a water vessel known as quman, or a word for force. György Györffy derived the Hungarian exonym Kun from Huns rather than Qun. István Vásáry argued that the Hungarian name must go back to one of their self-appellations, specifically Qun. The Hypatian Codex records an individual named Kuman while the Laurentian Codex calls him Kun. This variation suggests confusion between different tribal names in early historical records.
The vast territory of the Cuman, Kipchak realm consisted of loosely connected tribal units without strong central power. Robert Wolff states that discipline and cohesion permitted the Cumans to conquer such a vast area stretching from the Danube to Taraz. Al-Idrīsī wrote that Cumania got its name from a city called Black Cumania located 25 miles from Khazaria. White Cumania was another large inhabited city situated 50 miles further east near Tmutorakan. Petachiah of Regensburg noted they had no king but only princes and royal families. The khans acted on their own initiative without a unified state structure. A major commercial hub existed at Sudak where ships brought clothes and traded slaves, furs, beaver, and squirrels. Ibn al-Air viewed this as the city of the Qifjaq from which flowed all their material possessions. Due to political dominance, the Cuman language became Crimea's lingua franca adopted by Karaite Jewish and Crimean Armenian communities. The head of Cuman clans served the dual role of military leader and judge. They maintained autonomy through their own jurisdiction exempt from Hungarian county officials until the 18th century. Six specific tribes settled in Hungary including Borchol, Csertan, Olas, Iloncsuk, Kor, and Koncsog. These groups created two regions named Greater Cumania and Little Cumania between the Danube and Tisza rivers.
The Cumans first encountered the Rus' in 1055 when advancing toward the Pereyaslavl principality. Prince Vsevolod reached an agreement avoiding immediate military confrontation. In 1061 chieftain Sokal invaded and devastated the same region starting a war lasting 175 years. The Battle of the Alta River saw three sons of Yaroslav the Wise defeated by Cuman forces. After victory they repeatedly invaded Kievan Rus' taking captives who became slaves or were sold at southern markets. The Principality of Novgorod-Seversk suffered heavily alongside Chernigov and Pereyaslavl. Khan Boniak launched invasions on Kiev in 1096 burning the princely palace in Berestove. He also plundered the Kievan Cave Monastery before being defeated near Lubny in 1107. In 1093 Cumans initially defeated Grand Prince Vladimir II Monomakh but later lost to combined Rus' forces. By 1160 raids into Rus' had become annual events putting pressure on trade routes to Constantinople. Sevinch son of Khan Boniak expressed desire to plant his sword in the Golden gate of Kiev. Igor Svyatoslavich attacked Cumans near Kayala river in 1185 losing the battle immortalized in The Tale of Igor's Campaign. Alexander Borodin composed an opera titled Prince Igor based on this conflict. The dynamic pattern of attacks rarely allowed either side to attain unity needed for fatal blows.
The Mongols crossed Caucasus mountains pursuing Muhammad II shah of Khwarezmid Empire meeting Cumans in Subcaucasia in 1220. Cuman khans Danylo Kobiakovych and Yurii Konchakovych died fighting while others commanded by Khan Köten sought aid from Rus' princes. Khan Köten fled to Prince Mstislav the Bold of Galich presenting horses, camels, buffaloes and girls as gifts. He warned that today the Mongols took their land tomorrow they would take yours. The alliance between Rus' and Cumans numbered around 80,000 men crossing Dnieper River toward Pereyaslavl. A Mongol envoy tried persuading them not to fight but failed twice before the battle near Kalka River in 1223. Confusion and mistakes combined with superb Mongol tactics led to defeat though Cumans managed retreat unlike the crushed Rus'. During second invasion 1237, 1240 groups went living with Volga Bulgars untouched so far. Istvan Vassary states large-scale westward migration began after conquest. First wave appeared summer 1237 crossing Danube into Bulgaria where Tsar Ivan Asen II could not tame them. They proceeded through Thrace plundering towns as far as Hadrianoupolis making whole region Scythian desert according to Akropolites. Final blow came 1241 ending Cuman control over Pontic steppes dispersing tribes among Golden Horde or fleeing west. Some became subjects mixing with conquerors while others integrated into Byzantine Empire Second Bulgarian Empire Kingdom Hungary becoming kings nobles.
King Béla IV offered refuge remainder of Cuman people under leader Khan Köten December 1240. Köten vowed convert his 40,000 families to Christianity hoping use new subjects as auxiliary troops against Mongols. Batu Khan ordered Bela stop giving refuge noting Cumans skilled horsemen unlike sedentary Hungarians. Bela rejected ultimatum installing defenses Carpathian Mountains before returning Buda calling council war ordering unity. Many barons hostile toward Cumans believing they were spies despite fact Mongols attacked their people nearly 20 years. This chaos pushed Bela cornered feeling need show strength keep rebellious barons side ordering Köten house arrest. News arrived March 10 Mongols attacked Hungarian defenses Carpathian passes prompting Bela send letter Duke Frederick Austria asking help. Frederick had previously wanted Bela throne but Bela responded amassing vast army marching gates Vienna forcing Frederick step back. March 14 news arrived Carpathian defense forces defeated by Mongols ironically only ones willing fight Mongols memory fate steppes fresh minds. Bela lost control army many towns destroyed soon thereafter Frederick arrived stirring feelings against Cumans wishing harm country's defense. Some barons went Köten's house intent killing him scapegoat handing over Mongols possibly believing Cuman-Kipchaks were spies. Barons assassinated Köten Pest March 17 described novel Batu chapter End Khan Kotyan. Murder reached Cuman camp eruption Vesuvian intensity slaughtering vast number Hungarians leaving Balkans Second Bulgarian Empire going rampage destruction Hungary equal Europe experienced since incursions Mongols. Month later Hungary destroyed Mongols after losing only ally most efficient reliable military force. King Béla IV now penniless humiliated confiscation treasury loss three border areas begged Cumans return helping rebuild country. In return for military service Béla invited settle Great Plain between Danube Tisza rivers region almost uninhabited after raids 1241, 1242.
Cumans first seen Byzantine resources 1078 began serving mercenaries Byzantine army reign Emperor Alexios I Komnenos. In 1086 Cumans devastated Byzantine settlements Balkans joining Pechenegs former Hungarian king Salomon plundering provinces. Disagreement plunder shares 1091 resulted breach two peoples contributing Cumans led Togortok/Tugorkan Boniak joining Alexios against Pechenegs Battle Levounion. Large groups invaded Thrace weeks after Kalka River pillaging towns recently come Nicaean Empire until 1242 when John III Doukas Vatatzes won favour gifts diplomacy settling group Anatolia Meander valley east Philadelphia another near Constantinople. Served light cavalry standing troops collectively called Skythikoi/Skythikon central army fringes highlanders possibly mixture agriculture transhumance acting buffer Nicaean farmers Turkic nomads frequently mustered campaigns Europe. 1242 employed Vatatzes siege Thessaloniki 1256 Theodore II Laskaris left force 300 Cumans Nicaean governor Thessaloniki. 1259 2000 Cuman light cavalry fought Nicaean Empire Battle Pelagonia majority 800 troops under Alexios Strategopoulos retook Constantinople 1261 were Cumans. Large contingents part Michael VIII Palaiologos European campaigns 1263, 1264 1270, 1272 1275 again employed Andronikos II Palaiologos 1292 campaign Despotate Epirus terminated unauthorized retreat Turk mercenaries. Sytzigan known Syrgiannes baptism before 1290 became Megas Domestikos Commander-in-Chief Army under Emperor Andronikos II. His son Syrgiannes Palaiologos attained title Pinkernes friend Andronikos III Palaiologos John Kantakouzenos. Traces Cumans Anatolia 1239, 1240 large groups fleeing Mongols crossed Danube wandered long time find suitable place settle Thrace Macedonia Meander valley.
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Common questions
What is the origin of the name Cuman and what did it mean in Turkic languages?
The name Cuman appears in ancient Roman texts as a designation for a fortress or gate before becoming a people. In Turkic languages qu, qun, qūn, quman or qoman means pale, sallow, cream coloured, pale yellow, or yellowish grey.
When did the Cumans first encounter the Rus' and how long did their conflict last?
The Cumans first encountered the Rus' in 1055 when advancing toward the Pereyaslavl principality. A war started by chieftain Sokal in 1061 lasted 175 years involving repeated invasions and battles such as the Battle of the Alta River.
How did the Mongol invasion affect the Cuman people and when did they migrate westward?
The Mongols crossed Caucasus mountains meeting Cumans in Subcaucasia in 1223 leading to defeat at the Kalka River battle. Large-scale westward migration began after conquest with the first wave appearing summer 1237 crossing Danube into Bulgaria.
Why did King Béla IV offer refuge to the Cumans and what happened to Khan Köten?
King Béla IV offered refuge remainder of Cuman people under leader Khan Köten December 1240 hoping to use new subjects as auxiliary troops against Mongols. Barons assassinated Köten Pest March 17 which triggered a slaughtering vast number Hungarians leaving Balkans Second Bulgarian Empire going rampage destruction Hungary equal Europe experienced since incursions Mongols.
When did Cumans begin serving Byzantine resources and how many fought in the Battle Pelagonia?
Cumans first seen Byzantine resources 1078 began serving mercenaries Byzantine army reign Emperor Alexios I Komnenos. In 1259 2000 Cuman light cavalry fought Nicaean Empire Battle Pelagonia majority 800 troops under Alexios Strategopoulos retook Constantinople 1261 were Cumans.