Alexander I of Russia
At 10:45 on the 23rd of December 1777, a baby named Alexander Pavlovich drew his first breath inside the Winter Palace in Saint Petersburg. His mother Sophie Dorothea of Württemberg held him while his grandmother Catherine the Great watched from across the room. The infant was baptized three days later by mitred archpriest Ioann Ioannovich Panfilov within the Grand Church of the Winter Palace. Catherine herself served as godmother to the child who would one day rule an empire spanning half the globe.
His early years unfolded under the watchful eyes of Swiss tutor Frédéric-César de La Harpe and Orthodox priest Andrey Afanasyevich Samborsky. La Harpe introduced young Alexander to Rousseau's philosophy about human nature while Samborsky taught him English and traditional Russian faith. The boy walked a tightrope between two worlds that seemed incompatible with each other. He learned to speak fluent English at a time when most future Russian rulers barely knew their own language beyond basic commands.
On the 9th of October 1793, fifteen-year-old Alexander married fourteen-year-old Princess Louise of Baden. She took the name Elizabeth Alexeievna after converting to Orthodoxy. Catherine arranged this union but then filled their new home with dancing parties that annoyed both spouses. The couple lived in the Alexander Palace built specifically for them near Gatchina where they found refuge from the ostentatious court life.
Paul I became emperor after Catherine died in November 1796. Alexander watched his father abuse absolute power until he wrote that Russia had become "a plaything for the insane." The tsarevich witnessed military drills forced upon him by his volatile father who often flew into fits of rage when events did not go according to plan. Some sources suggest Catherine planned to remove Paul from succession entirely due to his unstable temperament.
When Paul I was assassinated on the 23rd of March 1801, twenty-three-year-old Alexander stood inside Saint Michael's Castle as General Nicholas Zubov announced his accession to the throne. Historians still debate whether Alexander knew about the conspiracy beforehand or if he simply refused to stop it. He became emperor through what felt like a crime that cost his father's life and left him with lasting remorse.
Alexander appointed Viktor Kochubey, Nikolay Novosiltsev, Pavel Stroganov, and Adam Jerzy Czartoryski to form the Private Committee. These young friends drew up plans for domestic reform aimed at establishing constitutional monarchy under Enlightenment principles. The old Collegia ministries were abolished and replaced by new Ministries led by ministers responsible directly to the Crown.
Mikhail Speransky rose from being the son of a village priest to become one of the Emperor's closest advisors. He created elaborate plans including the State Council intended to function as a Second Chamber of representative legislature. The Governing Senate reorganized itself into the Supreme Court of the Empire while codification of laws began in 1801 but never finished during Alexander's reign.
In 1803 and 1804, major liberal educational reforms transformed Russian higher education. Three existing universities at Moscow, Vilna, and Dorpat received strengthening while three new ones opened at Saint Petersburg, Kharkiv, and Kazan. Literary and scientific bodies flourished under imperial patronage until foreign scholars later got expelled when education became more religiously driven.
Upon taking power, Alexander reversed many unpopular policies of his father Paul and made peace with Britain on the 1st of April 1801. Soon afterwards he entered into close alliance with Prussia out of friendship for King Frederick William III rather than pure policy calculations. This partnership seemed promising until Napoleon Bonaparte began negotiations after entering Vienna triumphantly.
Frédéric-César de La Harpe returned from Paris with Reflections on the True Nature of the Consul for Life that tore away any illusions about Napoleon. The tutor revealed Bonaparte as "the most famous tyrant the world has produced" to his former student. Diplomatic relations broke off completely after execution of duc d'Enghien on trumped up charges.
Russia joined Britain in War of Third Coalition against Napoleon but suffered massive defeats at battles of Austerlitz and Friedland. After rout of Friedland on June 13th or 14th 1807, Napoleon offered alliance instead of harsh terms. Two Emperors met at Tilsit on the 25th of June 1807 where they discussed dividing Empire of the world between them.
Alexander initially believed Napoleon's proposal seriously before realizing it was merely political maneuvering. He used French alliance to remove geographical enemy from gates of Saint Petersburg by wresting Finland from Sweden during 1809. Relations deteriorated further when Napoleon refused ratification of January convention abolishing Polish name while announcing engagement to Archduchess Marie Louise.
Napoleon invaded Russia during summer of 1812 with Grande Armée numbering over half a million soldiers. Field Marshal Barclay de Tolly commanded Russian forces until nobility pressured Alexander to replace him with Prince Mikhail Kutuzov. On September 7th, the two armies clashed near Borodino west of Moscow involving more than 250,000 soldiers total.
Battle resulted in approximately 70,000 casualties yet remained inconclusive since Russian army withdrew undefeated despite heavy losses. Napoleon entered Moscow one week later only to find city evacuated and strategic points set ablaze by governor Count Fyodor Rostopchin. The loss did not compel Alexander to sue for peace as he had expected.
French troops retreated southwest toward Kaluga where Kutuzov encamped with remaining Russian forces. Starvation and onset of Russian winter devastated Grande Armée while persistent attacks upon isolated troops from peasants and Cossacks caused great losses. When remnants crossed Berezina river in November only 27,000 soldiers remained out of original force that numbered nearly 600,000 men.
Campaign ended the 14th of December 1812 when last French troops finally left Russian soil. Napoleon abandoned his army returning to Paris to protect position as Emperor while raising new forces against advancing Russians. This turning point changed Alexander's sentiment toward Napoleon into passionate hatred after occupation of Moscow and desecration of Kremlin.
Coalition forces entered northeastern France during January 1814 facing French forces numbering only about 70,000 men. Austrian Emperor Francis I and King Frederick William III felt demoralized hearing about Napoleon's victories since start of campaign yet Alexander remained determined to enter Paris whatever cost.
Russian forces attacked heights of Montmartre early morning March 30th while Prussians under Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher attacked north of city carrying French position around Aubervilliers. Coalition armies triumphantly entered city with Alexander at head followed by King of Prussia and Prince Schwarzenberg on March 31st.
Talleyrand gave key of city to tsar who declared himself bringing peace rather than destruction despite intending vengeance for Moscow. Napoleon abdicated unconditionally April 6th after Allies rejected his offer to abdicate in favor of son. Terms included exile to Isle of Elba settled in Treaty of Fontainebleau signed April 11th.
Alexander sought omens and supernatural guidance meeting Baroness de Krüdener at Basel autumn 1813 where mystic pietism became avowed force behind political actions. Madame de Krüdener and evangelist Henri-Louis Empaytaz became confidants whose revelations hung fate of world upon their words during imperial prayer-meetings.
From end of year 1818 Alexander's liberal views began changing following revolutionary conspiracy among officers Russian Imperial Guard. Plot to kidnap him on way to Congress Aix-la-Chapelle shook beliefs that had previously supported limited liberalism. At Aix he came first time into intimate contact with Metternich establishing ascendancy over mind of Russian Emperor.
Disillusioned autocrat confessed mistake during friendly conversation over afternoon tea at Troppau October 1820 saying "You have nothing to regret but I have!" He gave in November 19th signing Troppau Protocol consecrating claims collective Europe interfere internal concerns sovereign states.
In January still upheld ideal free confederation European states Holy Alliance against policy dictatorship great powers Quadruple Treaty before surrendering position. Alexander expelled leader Greek revolt Alexander Ypsilantis from Russian Imperial Cavalry directing foreign minister Ioannis Kapodistrias disavow any sympathy with Ypsilantis while issuing orders turning back deputation from Greek Morea province Congress Verona road 1822.
Cholera pandemic reached Astrakhan 1823-1824 prompting Tsar order anti-cholera campaign imitated other countries. His mind deteriorated becoming increasingly suspicious withdrawn religious less active as years passed.
Autumn 1825 saw Emperor undertake voyage south Russia due increasing illness wife Elizabeth Alexeievna. During trip himself caught typhus dying southern city Taganrog November 19th Old Style though news capital did not reach until December. Two brothers disputed who would become tsar each wanting other do so creating period confusion presaging failed Decembrist revolt liberal army officers weeks after death.
His body transported Saint Petersburg funeral interred Saints Peter Paul Cathedral Peter Paul Fortress the 13th of March 1826. Wife died few months later emperor's body being transported to Saint Petersburg for final rites. He left no legitimate children since two daughters died childhood leaving succession crisis unresolved among surviving male relatives.
Popular legend claims Tsar faked death living hermit name Feodor Kuzmich theory often resurrected popular writers. Svetlana Semyonova president Russian Graphological Society judged Alexander and Kuzmich handwriting identical while priest attending Feodor Kuzmich deathbed reportedly asked if indeed Alexander Blessed receiving response "Your works wonderful Lord There is no secret which not opened."
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Common questions
When and where was Alexander I of Russia born?
Alexander I of Russia was born at 10:45 on the 23rd of December 1777 inside the Winter Palace in Saint Petersburg. His mother Sophie Dorothea of Württemberg held him while his grandmother Catherine the Great watched from across the room.
Who were the key tutors who educated Alexander I of Russia during his early years?
Swiss tutor Frédéric-César de La Harpe introduced young Alexander to Rousseau's philosophy about human nature while Orthodox priest Andrey Afanasyevich Samborsky taught him English and traditional Russian faith. The boy walked a tightrope between two worlds that seemed incompatible with each other.
How did Paul I die and when did Alexander I become emperor?
Paul I was assassinated on the 23rd of March 1801, which allowed twenty-three-year-old Alexander to stand inside Saint Michael's Castle as General Nicholas Zubov announced his accession to the throne. Historians still debate whether Alexander knew about the conspiracy beforehand or if he simply refused to stop it.
What major educational reforms did Alexander I implement in 1803 and 1804?
Three existing universities at Moscow, Vilna, and Dorpat received strengthening while three new ones opened at Saint Petersburg, Kharkiv, and Kazan. Literary and scientific bodies flourished under imperial patronage until foreign scholars later got expelled when education became more religiously driven.
When did Napoleon invade Russia and what were the results of the Battle of Borodino?
Napoleon invaded Russia during summer of 1812 with Grande Armée numbering over half a million soldiers. On September 7th, the two armies clashed near Borodino west of Moscow involving more than 250,000 soldiers total yet remained inconclusive since Russian army withdrew undefeated despite heavy losses.
Where and when did Alexander I die and how was his death handled by the public?
Alexander I died in southern city Taganrog on November 19th Old Style though news capital did not reach until December. His body transported Saint Petersburg funeral interred Saints Peter Paul Cathedral Peter Paul Fortress the 13th of March 1826 while popular legend claims Tsar faked death living hermit name Feodor Kuzmich theory often resurrected popular writers.