Hundred Years' War
In 1328, Charles IV of France died without any sons or brothers. This death triggered a succession crisis that would eventually ignite the Hundred Years' War. The closest male relative to the dead king was his nephew Edward III of England. Edward's mother Isabella was Charles's sister. She claimed the throne for her son based on proximity of blood. However, French nobility rejected this claim. They argued that women could not transmit a right they did not possess themselves. An assembly of French barons decided that a native Frenchman should receive the crown instead.
The throne passed to Philip, Count of Valois, who became King Philip VI in 1328. Edward protested but ultimately submitted and paid homage for Gascony. Tensions continued to grow over the status of English holdings within France. In May 1337, Philip met with his Great Council in Paris. It was agreed that Gascony should be taken back into Philip's hands. This decision prompted Edward to renew his claim for the French throne by force of arms. The conflict began in 1337 when Philippe VI of France claimed that France controlled English holdings in France.
In July 1346, Edward mounted a major invasion across the channel, landing on Normandy's Cotentin Peninsula at St Vaast. The English army captured the city of Caen in just one day. Philip mustered a large army to oppose Edward. He chose to march northward toward the Low Countries, pillaging as he went. The army reached the river Seine to find most crossings destroyed. They moved further south until finding the crossing at Poissy. Edward then continued to Flanders until reaching the river Somme. The army crossed at a tidal ford at Blanchetaque.
The Battle of Crécy took place in 1346 and was a complete disaster for the French. It was largely credited to the English longbowmen. Philip allowed his army to attack before it was ready. King David II of Scotland responded by invading northern England but was defeated and captured at the Battle of Neville's Cross on the 17th of October 1346. In 1356, the Black Prince led a chevauchée from Gascony into France. During another campaign, he ravaged Auvergne, Limousin, and Berry. This led to the Battle of Poitiers on the 19th of September 1356 where the Black Prince's army routed the French. Jean de Grailly, captal de Buch, led a mounted unit that cut off the French retreat and successfully captured King John.
The Black Death arrived in Paris in 1348 and ravaged Europe between 1347 and 1351. In France, 6 to 12 million people died, representing 30% to 60% of the population. This resulted in major labor shortages and economic collapse. England also suffered from the plague with roughly 2, 3 million deaths. The economic consequences of the plague and the war led to widespread poverty and social dislocation.
High taxation put a heavy burden on the French peasantry and urban communities. The war effort against England largely depended on royal taxation. The population was increasingly unwilling to pay for it. This would be demonstrated at the Harelle and Maillotin revolts in 1382. Charles V had abolished many taxes on his deathbed but subsequent attempts to reinstate them stirred up hostility. Difficulties in raising taxes and revenue hampered the ability of the French to fight the English. Both nations found themselves fighting mainly through proxy wars during this period.
By 1378, under King Charles V the Wise and the leadership of Bertrand du Guesclin, the French had reconquered most lands ceded to King Edward in the Treaty of Brétigny. They reduced English control on the continent leaving them with few cities. Charles V provided a force of 12,000 men with du Guesclin at their head to support Trastámara in Castile. Peter appealed to England and Aquitaine's Black Prince for help but none was forthcoming.
In August 1373, John of Gaunt led a force of 9,000 men from Calais. While initially successful as French forces were insufficiently concentrated, they met more resistance as they moved south. Under orders from Charles V, the French avoided a set battle. Instead, they fell on forces detached from the main body to raid or forage. The French shadowed the English until October when the English found themselves trapped against the River Allier by four French forces. By the end of December, they were in Bordeaux starving and having lost over half of the 30,000 horses with which they had left Calais.
In August 1415, Henry V sailed from England with a force of about 10,500 and laid siege to Harfleur. The city surrendered on the 22nd of September. Because of the unexpected delay, most of the campaign season was gone. Henry elected to make a raiding expedition across France toward English-occupied Calais. He fought a much larger French army at the Battle of Agincourt north of the Somme. About 40% of the French nobility was killed during this near total victory.
The English laid siege to Orléans in October 1428 creating a stalemate for months. In April 1429 Joan of Arc persuaded the Dauphin to send her to the siege stating she received visions from God telling her to drive out the English. She entered the city on April 29 after which the tide began to turn against the English within days. She raised the morale of troops who attacked the English redoubts forcing them to lift the siege. Near Patay, French cavalry broke through a unit of English longbowmen then swept through the retreating English army losing 2,200 men.
By the war's end, feudal armies had mainly been replaced by professional troops. Aristocratic dominance yielded to a democratization of manpower and weapons. The Hundred Years' War precipitated the creation of the first standing armies in Western Europe since the Western Roman Empire. Charles VII reestablished a permanent standing army in 1445 with the Compagnies d'ordonnance. These professional units gave the French a considerable strategic advantage as well as an edge in professionalism and discipline.
The closing battle of the war, the Battle of Castillon on the 17th of July 1453, was the first major battle won through extensive use of field artillery. During the battle the French appeared to retreat towards their camp. The French camp at Castillon had been laid out by Jean Bureau. When the French cannon opened fire from positions in the camp, the English took severe casualties losing both Talbot and his son. A castle that once could only be captured after prolonged siege would now fall after a few days from cannon bombardment.
When the war ended, England was bereft of its continental possessions leaving it with only Calais until 1558. National feeling that emerged from the war unified both France and England further. Despite the devastation on its soil, the Hundred Years' War accelerated the process of transforming France from a feudal monarchy to a centralised state. In England political and financial troubles which emerged from defeat were a major cause of the Wars of the Roses starting in 1455.
Bubonic plague and warfare reduced population numbers throughout Europe during this period. France lost half its population during the Hundred Years' War with Normandy reduced by three-quarters and Paris by two-thirds. During the same period, England's population fell by 20 to 33 percent. Following defeat in the Hundred Years' War, English landowners complained vociferously about financial losses resulting from loss of continental holdings. This is often considered a major cause of the Wars of the Roses that started in 1455.
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Common questions
When did the Hundred Years' War begin and what triggered it?
The Hundred Years' War began in 1337 following a succession crisis after Charles IV of France died without sons or brothers. Edward III of England claimed the throne based on his mother Isabella being Charles's sister, but French nobility rejected this claim to install Philip VI instead.
Who won the Battle of Crécy and when did it take place?
The English won the Battle of Crécy in 1346 through the effective use of longbowmen which caused a complete disaster for the French army. King David II of Scotland was defeated and captured at the Battle of Neville's Cross on the 17th of October 1346 while attempting to invade northern England.
How many people died from the Black Death in France during the war period?
Between 1347 and 1351 the Black Death ravaged Europe with 6 to 12 million people dying in France representing 30% to 60% of the population. This demographic collapse resulted in major labor shortages and economic collapse that hampered the ability of both nations to fight.
When did Joan of Arc arrive at Orléans and what happened next?
Joan of Arc entered the city of Orléans on April 29 after persuading the Dauphin to send her to the siege in April 1429. She raised troop morale to attack English redoubts forcing them to lift the siege and allowing French cavalry to break through near Patay losing 2,200 men.
What was the final battle of the Hundred Years' War and when did it end?
The closing battle of the war was the Battle of Castillon on the 17th of July 1453 which marked the first major battle won through extensive use of field artillery. The French camp laid out by Jean Bureau opened fire causing severe casualties including the death of Talbot and his son while ending England's continental possessions except Calais until 1558.