Treaty of Fontainebleau (1814)
On the 11th of April 1814, Napoleon signed his abdication at the Palace of Fontainebleau. This moment ended years of conflict known as the War of the Sixth Coalition. The war began in 1812 and continued through 1814. A coalition of Austria, Prussia, Russia, Sweden, the United Kingdom, and German states drove Napoleon out of Germany in 1813. In early 1814, forces from the United Kingdom, Spain, and Portugal invaded France across the Pyrenees mountains. Simultaneously, armies from Russia, Austria, and their allies crossed the Rhine river into French territory. After the Battle of Paris, these groups entered negotiations with members of the French government. On the 31st of March, the Coalition issued a declaration to the French nation. Russian Emperor Alexander I addressed the French Sénat conservateur in person on the 1st of April. He announced that 150,000 French prisoners of war held by Russians since the invasion of two years prior would be released immediately. The Senate agreed to the terms the next day and passed the Acte de déchéance de l'Empereur. This decree dethroned Napoleon and his family. It stated that Napoleon Buonaparte was cast down from the throne. The right of succession in his family was abolished. The French people and army were absolved from their oath of fidelity to him. Word reached Napoleon at Fontainebleau on the 3rd of April 1814 that the Senate had dethroned him. He called the Coalition's bluff and abdicated in favor of his son. Empress Marie-Louise was named regent. Three plenipotentiaries took this conditional abdication to the Coalition sovereigns. Napoleon heard that Auguste Marmont had placed his corps in a hopeless position during this time. Their surrender became inevitable. The Coalition sovereigns rejected Napoleon's offer. Emperor Alexander stated clearly that they were not willing to compromise. With no military option left, Napoleon bowed to the inevitable.
The formal treaty was negotiated over several days following Napoleon's initial rejection. Plenipotentiaries signed the document in Paris on the 11th of April 1814. Napoleon ratified the agreement two days later on the 13th of April. The signatories included Caulaincourt, Duke of Vicenza, Marshal MacDonald, Duke of Tarentum, and Marshal Ney, Duke of Elchingen. Prince Metternich represented Austria while Count Nesselrode spoke for Russia. Baron Hardenberg acted as the voice of Prussia. These men exchanged ratifications at Paris within two days or sooner if possible. The treaty contained a total of 21 articles covering various terms. By the most significant terms, Napoleon was stripped of his powers as ruler of the French Empire. Both Napoleon and Marie-Louise preserved their respective titles as emperor and empress. Their Majesties would enjoy these titles during their lives. The mother, brothers, sisters, nephews, and nieces of the Emperor also preserved titles of princes of his family. All successors and family members were prohibited from attaining power in France. The island of Elba became a separate principality ruled by Napoleon. Elba's sovereignty and flag received recognition from foreign powers. Only France could assimilate the island in its relations with Barbary powers. The Duchy of Parma and Piacenza along with Guastalla were ceded to Empress Marie-Louise. A direct male descendant of her would be known as the Prince of Parma, Piacenza, and Guastalla.
The agreement established specific conditions for Napoleon's exile on Elba. The island formed a separate principality possessed by him in all sovereignty and property during his life. Foreign powers guaranteed recognition of Elba's sovereignty and flag. However, only France could assimilate the island in external relations. The treaty also addressed financial matters regarding Napoleon's former holdings. Empress Josephine's annual income was reduced to 1,000,000 francs. She continued to enjoy full property rights over her estates real and personal. Napoleon had to surrender all estates he possessed in France to the French crown. Of sums funded by Napoleon, a capital not exceeding 2,000,000 francs remained reserved for gratuities. He submitted all crown jewels to France. Despite these losses, he retained permission to take 400 men as his personal guard. These volunteers included officers, subofficers, and soldiers who served directly under him. The document specified that these guards would accompany him to Elba. This arrangement allowed Napoleon to maintain some semblance of imperial authority while in exile. The terms reflected a compromise between total imprisonment and complete freedom. Napoleon accepted these restrictions after rejecting conditional abdication earlier. His acceptance marked the end of his rule as emperor of the French.
Great Britain refused to sign the Treaty of Fontainebleau despite its conclusion. Castlereagh explained that signing would recognize Napoleon's legitimacy as emperor of the French. The British position held that the French nation existed in a state of rebellion. They viewed Napoleon as a usurper rather than a rightful ruler. Exiling him to an island so close to France created potential dangers. The distance from Italy also raised concerns about Jacobin factions in both regions. Castlereagh argued that such proximity could easily lead to further conflict. The United Kingdom did not participate in the final agreement signed by other powers. This diplomatic stance highlighted deep divisions among European nations regarding Napoleon's fate. While Austria, Russia, and Prussia moved forward with implementation, Britain maintained its opposition. The refusal demonstrated how different nations prioritized their own strategic interests over collective security. The treaty proceeded without British endorsement despite its significance for continental stability. This absence left questions about long-term enforcement mechanisms unanswered. Other powers continued negotiations independently while Britain watched from the sidelines.
The treaty outlined detailed financial provisions affecting multiple family members. Empress Josephine received reduced annual income totaling 1,000,000 francs. She retained full property rights over her existing estates real and personal. Napoleon surrendered all estates he possessed within France to the French crown. A capital reserve of up to 2,000,000 francs remained available for gratuities. These funds were distributed according to lists signed by Napoleon himself. All crown jewels reverted to France as part of the settlement. The Duchy of Parma, Piacenza, and Guastalla passed to Empress Marie-Louise. Her son would inherit these territories as Prince of Parma, Piacenza, and Guastalla. Direct male descendants held succession rights to these duchies in line. The arrangement preserved titles for extended family members including brothers, sisters, nephews, and nieces. These individuals maintained princely status wherever they sojourned during their lives. Successors and family members faced permanent prohibition from attaining power in France. The financial arrangements balanced generosity with practical limitations on future claims. Napoleon accepted these terms after rejecting conditional abdication earlier that month. His acceptance marked final surrender of imperial authority over former territories.
In 2005, two Americans faced charges for stealing a copy of the Treaty of Fontainebleau. Former history professor John William Rooney was then aged 74 years old. Marshall Lawrence Pierce was 44 years old at the time of arrest. They stole the document from the French National Archives between 1974 and 1988. The theft came to light in 1996 when a curator discovered Pierce had offered it for sale at Sotheby's auction house. Both men pleaded guilty in the United States court system. Rooney received a fine of $1,000 while Pierce paid $10,000. They were not extradited to France despite French court charges. The stolen treaty and other documents returned to France by the United States government in 2002. Letters from King Louis XVIII accompanied the treaty back to Paris. These items had been checked out from the archives by both men decades earlier. The case highlighted vulnerabilities in archival security systems during the late twentieth century. It also demonstrated how historical artifacts could become targets for private collectors. The legal proceedings concluded without extradition but left questions about international cooperation unresolved.
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Common questions
When did Napoleon sign the Treaty of Fontainebleau in 1814?
Napoleon signed his abdication at the Palace of Fontainebleau on the 11th of April 1814. The formal treaty was negotiated over several days following this initial rejection and signed by plenipotentiaries in Paris on the same date.
Where was Napoleon exiled after signing the Treaty of Fontainebleau?
The island of Elba became a separate principality ruled by Napoleon under the terms of the agreement. Foreign powers guaranteed recognition of Elba's sovereignty and flag while allowing France to handle external relations with Barbary powers.
Who were the signatories of the Treaty of Fontainebleau signed on the 11th of April 1814?
Plenipotentiaries Caulaincourt Duke of Vicenza Marshal MacDonald Duke of Tarentum and Marshal Ney Duke of Elchingen signed the document. Prince Metternich represented Austria Count Nesselrode spoke for Russia and Baron Hardenberg acted as the voice of Prussia.
Why did Great Britain refuse to sign the Treaty of Fontainebleau in 1814?
Great Britain refused to sign because Castlereagh explained that signing would recognize Napoleon's legitimacy as emperor of the French. The British position held that the French nation existed in a state of rebellion and viewed Napoleon as a usurper rather than a rightful ruler.
What financial provisions did the Treaty of Fontainebleau establish for Empress Josephine?
Empress Josephine received reduced annual income totaling 1,000,000 francs after the treaty was concluded. She retained full property rights over her existing estates real and personal while Napoleon surrendered all estates he possessed within France to the French crown.