War of the Sixth Coalition
In June 1812, Napoleon crossed the Neman river with an army of 650,000 men. Roughly half were French soldiers, while the rest came from allied or subject territories. Russia proclaimed a Patriotic War against this massive invasion force. The Russian strategy involved falling back and destroying everything that might help the invaders. This scorched earth policy left the French without supplies as they advanced toward Moscow. A devastating battle occurred at Borodino on the 7th of September where both armies suffered heavy losses. Despite winning tactically, Napoleon could not destroy the Russian army. He entered Moscow on the 14th of September only to find it empty and burning. Alexander I refused to surrender despite losing control of his capital. Winter approached quickly, leaving the French troops exposed to freezing temperatures and starvation. By November, only 27,000 fit soldiers managed to cross the Berezina river. Total casualties reached at least 370,000 men lost to fighting, disease, and cold weather conditions.
Britain had been at war with France since 1803 and fought alongside Portugal and Spain in the Peninsular War for over three years. Sweden and Russia opposed Napoleon until 1807 and 1810 respectively but were forced into his Continental System. On the 9th of January 1812, French troops occupied Swedish Pomerania to stop trade between local smugglers and British merchants. Charles John, formerly Marshal Jean Baptiste Bernadotte, declared neutrality and sent diplomats to London and St. Petersburg. Sweden signed a secret Treaty of Saint Petersburg with Russia against France and Denmark-Norway on the 5th of April 1812. The Treaty of Örebro formally ended wars between Britain and Sweden on the 18th of July 1812. This formed the basis of an alliance between Russia, Britain, and Sweden. Prussia joined the coalition after Generalleutnant Ludwig Yorck von Wartenburg signed the Convention of Tauroggen on the 30th of December 1812. Austria moved from armed neutrality to open opposition in August 1813. The United Kingdom agreed to Swedish claims to Norway on the 3rd of March 1813.
Napoleon built up forces in eastern Europe from 30,000 to 400,000 men during early 1813. He inflicted 40,000 casualties on Allied forces at Lützen near Leipzig on the 2nd of May. Another battle occurred at Bautzen on 20-the 21st of May 1813 where both sides lost about equal numbers of men. These battles involved over 250,000 total forces making them among the largest conflicts of the Napoleonic Wars. Napoleon could not pursue his victories due to a lack of horses for cavalry units. An armistice declared on the 4th of June 1813 lasted until the 13th of August allowing both sides to recover from losses. During this pause, three Allied sovereigns met at Trachenberg Castle to coordinate their war effort. They created the Trachenberg Plan which sought to wear down French forces using a Fabian strategy. Following the armistice, Napoleon won a tactical victory at Dresden on 26-the 27th of August 1813 despite being outnumbered. However, he failed to destroy the main Allied army before they escaped encirclement. The Battle of Leipzig from 16-the 19th of October 1813 became known as the Battle of Nations and was the largest battle in European history before World War I.
After the Battle of Leipzig, Bernadotte liberated Bremen and Lübeck in late November 1813. He launched an invasion of Denmark in early December to secure the Coalition's northern flank. A lightning campaign lasting only two weeks saw Swedish forces subdue the Royal Danish Army in Holstein. General Anders Skjöldebrand defeated the Danes at Bornhöved on the 7th of December 1813. Three days later, the Danish Auxiliary Corps scored a minor victory at Sehested but could not change the course of war. On the 14th of January 1814, the Treaty of Kiel concluded between Sweden and Denmark-Norway ceded Norway to the King of Sweden. While clearing Low Countries of French troops in Spring 1814, Norwegians declared independence and adopted their own constitution on the 17th of May 1814. Bernadotte invaded Norway on the 27th of July 1814 with a combined Swedish army of 40,000 well-trained men. Facing them were 30,000 Norwegian militia who fought defensive battles at Lier and Matrand. An armistice known as the Convention of Moss was concluded on the 14th of August followed by swift negotiations. The Union between Sweden and Norway was formally established on the 4th of November 1814.
Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington broke French power in Spain during 1813 and forced retreats. He planned to move his supply base from Lisbon to Santander for strategic advantage. Anglo-Portuguese forces swept northwards in late May and seized Burgos before outflanking the French army. At the Battle of Vitoria on the 21st of June, 65,000 French under Joseph Bonaparte were routed by 53,000 British, 27,000 Portuguese and 19,000 Spaniards. Wellington pursued and dislodged French troops from San Sebastián which was sacked after a siege. Allies chased retreating French forces reaching the Pyrenees in early July. Marshal Soult commanded French counter-offensives dealing sharp defeats at Maya and Roncesvalles but lost momentum. The allied victory at Sorauren on 28 and the 30th of July put Soult back on defensive. On the 7th of October, Coalition allies crossed into France fording the Bidasoa river. A beleaguered Napoleon agreed to a separate peace with Spain under the Treaty of Valençay on the 11th of December releasing Ferdinand VII as King of Spain.
Napoleon fought a series of battles including Arcis-sur-Aube while being steadily forced back against overwhelming odds. He issued a decree for 900,000 fresh conscripts but only raised a fraction of these men. During February 1814 he won multiple battles in his Six Days' Campaign despite fielding less than 80,000 soldiers. At the Treaty of Chaumont signed the 9th of March, Allies agreed to preserve their coalition until total defeat. After defeating French forces on Paris outskirts, Coalition armies entered the city on the 31st of March with Tsar Alexander I leading. The French Senate passed Acte de déchéance de l'Empereur declaring Napoleon deposed on the 2nd of April. His marshals mutinied at Fontainebleau on the 4th of April refusing to march further. Ney told the Emperor that the army would obey its chiefs rather than follow him directly. Napoleon abdicated on the 11th of April 1814 and war officially ended soon after though some fighting continued until May. The Treaty of Fontainebleau was signed between continental powers and Napoleon followed by Treaty of Paris on the 30th of May 1814. Allied leaders exiled Napoleon to Elba island and restored Bourbon monarchy under Louis XVIII.
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Common questions
What happened to Napoleon's army during the War of the Sixth Coalition?
Napoleon crossed the Neman river with 650,000 men in June 1812 and lost at least 370,000 soldiers to fighting, disease, and cold weather conditions. By November only 27,000 fit soldiers managed to cross the Berezina river after the scorched earth policy left them without supplies.
When did Sweden join the coalition against France in the War of the Sixth Coalition?
Sweden signed a secret Treaty of Saint Petersburg with Russia on the 5th of April 1812 to oppose France and Denmark-Norway. Charles John declared neutrality and sent diplomats to London and St. Petersburg before forming an alliance basis between Russia, Britain, and Sweden.
Which battle was the largest conflict in European history before World War I during the War of the Sixth Coalition?
The Battle of Leipzig from the 16th to the 19th of October 1813 became known as the Battle of Nations and involved over 250,000 total forces. This engagement occurred after Napoleon won a tactical victory at Dresden but failed to destroy the main Allied army before they escaped encirclement.
How did the Union between Sweden and Norway form during the War of the Sixth Coalition?
The Treaty of Kiel concluded on the 14th of January 1814 ceded Norway to the King of Sweden while Norwegians declared independence on the 17th of May 1814. Bernadotte invaded Norway on the 27th of July 1814 with 40,000 men and established the Union formally on the 4th of November 1814 following the Convention of Moss.
What were the results of the Battle of Vitoria in the War of the Sixth Coalition?
At the Battle of Vitoria on the 21st of June 65,000 French under Joseph Bonaparte were routed by 53,000 British, 27,000 Portuguese and 19,000 Spaniards. Arthur Wellesley pursued and dislodged French troops from San Sebastián which was sacked after a siege before allies reached the Pyrenees in early July.
When did Napoleon abdicate and end the War of the Sixth Coalition?
Napoleon abdicated on the 11th of April 1814 after his marshals mutinied at Fontainebleau on the 4th of April refusing to march further. The Treaty of Paris was signed on the 30th of May 1814 while Allied leaders exiled Napoleon to Elba island and restored Bourbon monarchy under Louis XVIII.