Special forces
NATO defines special operations as military activities conducted by specially designated, organized, selected, trained and equipped forces using unconventional techniques. These units differ from conventional armies because they operate behind enemy lines to achieve disruption through sabotage or intelligence gathering rather than holding territory. Richard Bowyer's Dictionary of Military Terms notes that these forces perform functions ranging from counter-terrorism to hostage rescue. The United States uses the term special forces for specific Army units while reserving special operations forces for broader applications across all branches. Russian-speaking countries typically call any such unit spetsnaz, an acronym meaning special purpose. This distinction matters because it shapes how different nations organize their elite troops and what missions they prioritize in modern conflict.
Chinese strategist Jiang Ziya described recruiting talented men into specialized elite units capable of commanding heights and making rapid long-distance advances over three thousand years ago. Han dynasty crossbowmen known as jue chang could shoot powerful weapons with a recorded draw-weight exceeding 340 kilograms. Hamilcar Barca deployed specialized troops in Sicily during 249 BC that launched several offensives per day. Roman fleets used small camouflaged ships crewed by selected men for scouting missions during the late Roman period. Gerald the Fearless led Portuguese special forces who climbed wooden ladders over city walls on rainy nights to capture sentinels without alerting guards. Muslim naval units employed soldiers who passed for Crusaders to board enemy ships and destroy them using ruses. Ninjas in Japan conducted reconnaissance and assassination alongside conventional soldiers during the Middle Ages. Rifle regiments formed during the Napoleonic Wars held specialized roles in skirmishing outside formal battle lines.
Captain John Smith first mentioned specialized Rangers in Colonial America in 1622 while fighting wars between colonists and Native American tribes. Colonel Benjamin Church commanded the first Ranger force in 1676, learning frontier skills from friendly Native Americans to carry out offensive strikes. Knowlton's Rangers supplied reconnaissance and espionage for George Washington's Continental Army during the Revolutionary War. Daniel Morgan led The Corps of Rangers for the same army. Rogers' Rangers operated from Roger's Island in modern-day Fort Edward, New York, establishing what is now regarded as the spiritual home of United States Special Operations Forces. Robert Rogers wrote 28 Rules of Ranging which became the first known manual of modern asymmetric warfare tactics used today. Various military Ranger units such as the United States Mounted Rangers continued through the 19th century until forming Army Ranger Battalions in World War II. The British Indian Army deployed the Corps of Guides in 1846 and Gurkha Scouts formed in the 1890s for border wars. Lord Lovat created the Lovat Scouts in 1900, a Scottish Highland regiment made up of exceptional woodsmen outfitted in ghillie suits. General Antonio Luna formed the Luna Sharpshooters on 1899 to serve under the Philippine Revolutionary Army.
Winston Churchill called for specially trained troops of the hunter class to develop a reign of terror down enemy coasts in 1940. Lieutenant Colonel Dudley Clarke submitted a proposal to General Sir John Dill that became approved on the 23rd of June 1940 when the first Commando raid took place. By autumn 1940 more than 2,000 men had volunteered to form four battalions under Brigadier J. C. Haydon. A training depot at Achnacarry in the Scottish Highlands opened in February 1942 under Lieutenant Colonel Charles Vaughan. Volunteers completed an eight-mile march with all equipment from Spean Bridge railway station before starting exercises using live ammunition. Lieutenant David Stirling formed the Special Air Service in July 1941 from an unorthodox idea about small teams exacting greater damage than entire platoons. L Detachment undertook its first operations in the Western Desert following extensive training at Kabrit camp by the River Nile. SAS attacks on Bouerat caused severe damage to harbour petrol tanks and storage facilities during 1942. The Chindits operated from bases deep behind Japanese lines in Burma while fighting at great cost in lives. The Company of Chosen Immortals formed in August 1942 under Cavalry Major Antonios Stefanakis in Palestine with 200 men. Polish Cichociemni paratroopers were deployed into Poland to sustain resistance structures against German occupiers. Australian independent companies began training at Wilson's Promontory in Victoria in early 1941.
Admiral William H. McRaven described two approaches to special forces operations in a 2012 posture statement to the U.S. Senate Committee on Armed Services. The direct approach features technologically enabled small-unit precision lethality focused intelligence and inter-agency cooperation integrated on a digitally-networked battlefield. The indirect approach includes empowering host nation forces and engaging key populations without over-reliance on single capabilities. Operation Prime Chance marked the first deployment of U.S. Special Operations Command troops stemming from Resolution 598 under Secretary of Defense Caspar Weinberger. Governments found objectives could be better achieved by anonymous specialists than politically controversial conventional deployments throughout the latter half of the 20th century. Special forces coordinated activities between local guerrilla fighters and air power in both Kosovo and Afghanistan. Women applied for selection into units as gender restrictions removed, leading Norwegian Special Operation Forces to establish an all female unit Jegertroppen in 2014. The raid on Osama Bin Laden's compound in Pakistan demonstrated modern capabilities while the Barisha Raid in Syria occurred in 2019. Elements of national power must deploy in concert without leaving the entire force unprepared across the spectrum of military operations.
The German Brandenburger Regiment served as a special forces unit used by the Abwehr for infiltration during Fall Weiss of 1939. Otto Skorzeny commanded the 502nd SS Jäger Battalion which sowed disorder behind Allied lines by mis-directing convoys away from front lines. The Decima Flottiglia MAS sank considerable British tonnage in the Mediterranean while A.D.R.A. destroyed 25 B-17 Flying Fortress bombers in North Africa in 1943. Imperial Japanese Army deployed army paratroops in combat during the Battle of Palembang on Sumatra on the 14th of February 1942. Finnish sissi forces operated far behind enemy lines in small teams conducting intelligence-gathering missions and raids on enemy supply depots. Lauri Törni became a famous LRRP commander before joining the U.S. Army to train American personnel. Khaled Mosharraf planned to deploy a special commando team called Crack Platoon during the Bangladesh Liberation War in June 1971. Initially containing 17 trained commandos at Melaghar Camp, the platoon launched guerrilla operations on the 5th of June targeting Dhaka power supplies. The World Bank mission reported hazardous situations prevailing in East Pakistan after these operations. Australian Z Special Force undertook direct action missions including Operation Jaywick where several Japanese ships were sunk in Singapore Harbour in 1943.
Common questions
What is the definition of special forces according to NATO?
NATO defines special operations as military activities conducted by specially designated, organized, selected, trained and equipped forces using unconventional techniques. These units differ from conventional armies because they operate behind enemy lines to achieve disruption through sabotage or intelligence gathering rather than holding territory.
When did Richard Bowyer publish his Dictionary of Military Terms regarding special forces functions?
Richard Bowyer's Dictionary of Military Terms notes that these forces perform functions ranging from counter-terrorism to hostage rescue. The text does not specify a publication date for this dictionary but confirms its content describes the functional range of these units.
Who commanded the first Ranger force in Colonial America during 1676?
Colonel Benjamin Church commanded the first Ranger force in 1676 while learning frontier skills from friendly Native Americans to carry out offensive strikes. This unit operated against Native American tribes during wars between colonists and indigenous populations.
On what date was the training depot at Achnacarry opened for Commando forces?
A training depot at Achnacarry in the Scottish Highlands opened in February 1942 under Lieutenant Colonel Charles Vaughan. Volunteers completed an eight-mile march with all equipment from Spean Bridge railway station before starting exercises using live ammunition.
Which year did Norwegian Special Operation Forces establish their all female unit Jegertroppen?
Norwegian Special Operation Forces established an all female unit Jegertroppen in 2014 after gender restrictions were removed allowing women to apply for selection into units. This development followed decades of special forces operations including raids on Osama Bin Laden's compound in Pakistan and the Barisha Raid in Syria which occurred in 2019.