Imperial Japanese Army
On the 27th of January 1868, Tokugawa Yoshinobu marched on Kyoto with a force of 15,000 men. These troops included units trained by French military advisers. They faced opposition from 5,000 soldiers drawn from the Satsuma, Chōshū, and Tosa domains. The clash occurred at two road junctions known as Toba and Fushimi just south of Kyoto. An Imperial banner was given to the defending troops on the second day of fighting. A member of the Imperial Family named Prince Ninnaji became the nominal commander in chief. This act made the pro-imperial forces officially an army loyal to the court rather than individual warlords. The bakufu forces eventually retreated to Osaka while their remaining units were ordered back to Edo. The encounter marked the beginning of the Boshin War which would reshape Japan's political landscape.
In March 1869, the imperial government created various administrative offices including a new military branch. That same month they organized an imperial bodyguard of 400 to 500 men. This unit consisted of Satsuma and Chōshū troops strengthened by veterans from the battle at Toba, Fushimi. It also included yeoman and masterless samurai from various domains. The imperial court told the domains to restrict the size of their local armies. They required these domains to contribute funding for a national officers' training school located in Kyoto. Within a few months the government disbanded both the military branch and the imperial bodyguard. The former proved ineffective while the latter lacked modern weaponry and equipment. Two new organizations replaced them including a military affairs directorate with bureaus for both the army and navy.
The military affairs directorate drafted an army using troop contributions proportional to each domain's annual rice production measured in koku. As the war continued, the organization fixed where each domain was required to send ten men for every 10,000 koku of rice produced. This policy put the imperial government in direct competition with the domains for military recruitment. The government banned the domains from enlisting troops in April 1868 but the quota system never fully worked as intended. It was abolished the following year due to its failure to function properly.
The conscription ordinance enacted on the 10th of January 1873, made universal military service compulsory for all male subjects in the country. The law called for seven years of total military service divided into three parts. Three years were spent in the regular army followed by two years in the reserve and another two years in the second reserve. All able-bodied males between ages 17 and 40 became members of the national guard. They would only see service during severe national crises like attacks or invasions of Japan. A conscript examination decided which group of recruits entered the army while those who failed were excused from all examinations except the national guard.
Recruits who passed entered a draft lottery where some were selected for active duty. A smaller group was chosen for replacement duty should anything happen to any of the active duty soldiers. One primary difference between the samurai and peasant class was the right to bear arms. This ancient privilege suddenly extended to every male in the nation. Several exemptions existed including criminals, those showing hardship, the physically unfit, heads of households, students, government bureaucrats, and teachers. A conscript could purchase an exemption for ¥270 which was an enormous sum at that time. Under the new 1873 ordinance, the conscript army consisted mainly of second and third sons of impoverished farmers manning regional garrisons.
In 1873, the army numbered approximately 17,900 men from a population of 35 million. It doubled to about 33,000 by 1875. Public unrest began in 1874 reaching its apex in the Satsuma Rebellion of 1877. Rebels used slogans opposing conscription and elementary schools while calling to fight Korea. The new army took one year to crush the uprising but these victories proved critical for creating and stabilizing the Imperial government. They enabled sweeping social, economic and political reforms allowing Japan to become a modern state comparable to France or Germany. Foreign assistance came through French military missions from 1872 to 1880 and again from 1884 to 1889. After France's defeat in 1871, Japanese officials switched to German models instead.
The Japanese invasion of Taiwan under Qing rule occurred in 1874 as a punitive expedition. This action followed the Mudan Incident of December 1871 where Paiwan people murdered 54 crewmembers of a wrecked merchant vessel from the Ryukyu Kingdom on southwestern Taiwan. Twelve men were rescued by local Chinese-speaking communities and transferred to Miyako-jima in the Ryukyu Islands. The Empire of Japan used this event to assert sovereignty over the Ryukyu Kingdom which was a tributary state of both Japan and Qing China. It also attempted to claim Taiwan itself which remained a Qing territory at that time.
In early months of 1894, the Donghak Peasant Revolution broke out in southern Korea spreading throughout the country. By May, Chinese forces prepared mobilization in provinces including Zhili, Shandong, and Manchuria. On June 3, the Chinese government accepted requests from the Korean government to send troops helping quell the rebellion. They informed Japan of this action. Japan decided to send 2,500 men to Asan located about 70 kilometers from Seoul. These troops arrived on June 9 and received 400 more reinforcements on June 25. A total of approximately 2,900 Chinese soldiers gathered at Asan while Japanese forces simultaneously sent a reinforced brigade of roughly 8,000 troops under General Oshima Yoshimasa.
On the 6th of July 1900, the 5th Infantry Division alerted for possible deployment to China during the Boxer Rebellion. Advance units brought Japanese strength to 3,800 personnel within an allied force of 17,000. The commander of the 5th Division, Lieutenant General Yamaguchi Motoomi, took operational control from Fukushima. Two days later on July 8, the British ambassador offered one million British pounds for Japanese participation. In early August, expeditionary forces pushed toward Beijing where they lifted the siege on August 14. By that time, the 13,000-strong Japanese force made up about 40 percent of the total allied expeditionary force despite suffering excessive casualties.
In the 1920s, the Imperial Japanese Army expanded rapidly reaching 300,000 men by 1927. Unlike western countries, this army enjoyed great independence from government oversight. Under provisions of the Meiji Constitution, the War Minister answered only to Emperor Hirohito himself rather than elected civilian governments. Japanese civilian administrations needed army support to survive politically. The Army controlled appointment of the War Minister and in 1936 passed a law stipulating that only active duty generals or lieutenant-generals could hold the post.
Military spending as proportion of national budget rose disproportionately during the 1920s and 1930s. Various factions within the military exerted disproportionate influence over Japanese foreign policy decisions. Originally known simply as the Army (rikugun), it re-titled itself the Imperial Army (kōgun) after 1928. This change reflected the army's turn toward romantic nationalism serving its political ambitions. In 1923, the army consisted of 21 divisions but reduced to 17 following reforms in 1924. Two leaps in development of the military industry occurred between 1906, 1910 and 1931, 1934 allowing re-equipment of armed forces.
In 1931, the Imperial Japanese Army had overall strength of 198,880 officers and men organized into 17 divisions. The Manchurian incident became known as a pretended sabotage of local Japanese-owned railway. An attack staged by Japan was blamed on Chinese dissidents instead. Action by the military largely independent of civilian leadership led to invasion of Manchuria in 1931. Later events resulted in the Second Sino-Japanese War beginning in 1937. By 1938, the Army expanded to 34 divisions while influence with Emperor waned and Navy influence increased.
In 1941, the Imperial Japanese Army fielded 51 divisions plus various special-purpose artillery, cavalry, anti-aircraft, and armored units totaling 1,700,000 people. At start of World War II, most Japanese Army divisions numbered 27 stationed in China. A further 13 divisions defended Mongolian border due to concerns about possible Soviet attacks. From 1942 onward, soldiers were sent to Hong Kong under the 23rd Army, Philippines via 14th Army, Thailand through 15th Army, Burma also using 15th Army, Dutch East Indies via 16th Army, and Malaya under 25th Army.
By 1945, there existed 6 million soldiers within the Imperial Japanese Army ranks. From 1943 onwards, Japanese troops suffered severe shortages of supplies including food, medicine, munitions, and armaments. These problems stemmed largely from submarine interdiction of supply lines and losses to Japanese shipping worsened by longstanding rivalry with Imperial Japanese Navy. Lack of supplies caused large numbers of fighter aircraft to become unserviceable for lack of spare parts. As many as two-thirds of Japan's total military deaths resulted from illness or starvation rather than combat wounds alone.
Soldiers received meagre salaries compared to respective armies in Europe or America though cost of living remained cheaper in Japan. In December 1941, one Japanese yen equaled approximately $0.23 US dollars. A private first class earned ¥9 monthly while a general received ¥550. For comparison, an American private earned about $50 per month meaning lowest ranking US soldier earned equivalent to maximum salary of Imperial Japanese major. Complicating matters further was that most Japanese soldiers paid using unsupported currency called Japanese military yen which could not be redeemed for regular yen.
Throughout Second Sino-Japanese War and World War II, the Imperial Japanese Army showed immense brutality engaging numerous atrocities against civilians and prisoners of war. The Nanjing Massacre stands as the most well-known example among these crimes. Other documented war crimes included rape and forced prostitution alongside death marches. Biological warfare programs targeted civilians directly while execution of prisoners became standard practice throughout conflict zones.
Such atrocities committed during the war caused tens of millions of deaths across Asia and Pacific regions. Indonesian youth participated in military training by Japanese officers around 1945 while thousands taken away as forced laborers known as romusha suffered ill-treatment and starvation. Many died constructing railways including Burma-Siam and Saketi-Bayah lines within internment camps located in Jakarta. Intelligence officer Hiroo Onoda surrendered on Lubang Island in Philippines in March 1974 appearing as last known holdout though Teruo Nakamura surrendered later on Morotai island December 1974.
Over course of existence, millions of IJA soldiers killed wounded or listed missing action across multiple conflicts. Taiwan Expedition of 1874 saw 543 casualties including 12 killed battle and 531 dying from disease. First Sino-Japanese War resulted in 1,132 dead plus 3,758 wounded while Russo-Japanese War claimed around 47,000 total Japanese dead combat with another 80,000 if disease counted. World War II deaths ranged between 2,120,000 and 2,190,000 Imperial Armed Forces dead including non-combat deaths.
Article 9 of Japanese Constitution renounced right to use force resolving disputes enacted by Japanese government preventing future militarism leading conflict. In 1947 Public Security Force formed serving basis for newly created Ground Self-Defense Force established 1954 early Cold War stages. Although significantly smaller than former Imperial Japanese Army nominally defensive purposes only this force constitutes modern army today Japan maintains.
Separately some soldiers continued fighting isolated Pacific islands until at least 1970s with last known surrender occurring December 1974. Intelligence officer Hiroo Onoda surrendered Lubang Island Philippines March 1974 while Teruo Nakamura surrendered Morotai island Indonesia December 1974 appearing final holdouts though reports exist other Japanese stragglers surrendering after date. These individuals remained unaware war ended decades earlier due to isolation and lack communication channels reaching them directly.
Growth organization statistics show evolution from 12,000 men in 1870 to 6 million active personnel plus numerous individual units by 1945. Total military August 1945 reached 6,095,000 including 676,863 Army Air Service members. Casualties breakdown reveals China theater claimed 435,600 KIA against US forces 659,650 KIA Burma Campaign 163,000 KIA Australian Combat Zone 199,511 KIA French Indochina 7,900 KIA USSR/Manchuria 45,900 KIA Others/Japan 58,100 KIA totaling over two million deaths across all theaters combined.
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Common questions
When did the Imperial Japanese Army begin its formation after the Boshin War?
The Imperial Japanese Army began its formation in March 1869 when the imperial government created various administrative offices including a new military branch. This unit consisted of Satsuma and Chōshū troops strengthened by veterans from the battle at Toba, Fushimi.
What year was universal conscription introduced to the Imperial Japanese Army?
Universal conscription for all male subjects in Japan was enacted on the 10th of January 1873 through the conscription ordinance. The law required seven years of total military service divided into three parts with active duty followed by reserve periods.
How many soldiers were in the Imperial Japanese Army during World War II in 1945?
By 1945 there existed 6 million soldiers within the Imperial Japanese Army ranks totaling 6,095,000 personnel including 676,863 Army Air Service members. These forces suffered severe shortages of supplies including food medicine munitions and armaments from 1943 onwards.
Which war crimes are associated with the Imperial Japanese Army during conflicts?
The Nanjing Massacre stands as the most well-known example among these crimes committed by the Imperial Japanese Army alongside rape forced prostitution death marches and biological warfare programs targeting civilians directly. Execution of prisoners became standard practice throughout conflict zones causing tens of millions of deaths across Asia and Pacific regions.
When did the last known holdouts of the Imperial Japanese Army surrender after World War II?
Intelligence officer Hiroo Onoda surrendered on Lubang Island in Philippines in March 1974 while Teruo Nakamura surrendered later on Morotai island December 1974 appearing final holdouts though reports exist other Japanese stragglers surrendering after date.