Siege of Tobruk

• 1. Strategic Context And Desert Terrain

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  The Western Desert Campaign stretched from Mersa Matruh in Egypt to Gazala on the Libyan coast, covering a distance of about 480 kilometers along the Via Balbia. This single paved road served as the only reliable artery for military movement across the region. Inland, a vast sand sea marked the southern limit of the desert, reaching its widest point near Giarabub and Siwa. The terrain consisted of a raised, flat plain of stony ground sitting approximately 15 meters above sea level, extending hundreds of kilometers toward the sand sea. Scorpions, vipers, and swarms of flies populated this harsh environment, which was inhabited by only a small number of nomadic Bedouin tribes. Navigation relied entirely on sun, star, compass, and an intuitive sense of the landscape gained through experience. When Italian troops advanced into Egypt in September 1940, the Maletti Group got lost leaving Sidi Omar and had to be found by aircraft. Days were hot while nights turned cold, and the sirocco wind blew clouds of fine sand that reduced visibility to just a few meters. This dust coated eyes, lungs, machinery, food, and equipment, forcing motor vehicles and aircraft to use special oil filters. The barren ground meant all supplies for military operations had to be transported from outside sources. German engines tended to overheat during these conditions, causing tank engine life to fall from 200 hours to 100 hours. Lack of standard parts for German and Italian types made repairs even more difficult. The ground surface was hard but dropped to sea level in steps, with the coast cut by deep ravines.

• 2. The Fall Of Italian Defenses

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  In late 1940, Allied forces defeated the Italian 10th Army during Operation Compass and trapped the remnants at Beda Fomm. On the 22nd of January 1941, Tobruk's Italian garrison surrendered after a fortnight-long blockade. The Royal Navy led by Captain Hector Waller commanded the monitor HMS Terror to bombard defenses on the night of the 20th of January. Destroyers maintained a screen further out to intercept the cruiser San Giorgio should it attempt a breakout. British artillery bombarded the town from 05:00 to 07:00 on the morning of the 21st of January. At 07:00, the 2/3rd Australian Infantry Battalion attacked and rapidly breached the perimeter. By evening, nearly half of the Italian defenses had fallen. The following day, the naval command surrendered. By 16:00, the remaining Italian forces under General della Mura surrendered, while General Pitassi Mannella had been taken prisoner earlier that morning. The fortress was defended by the Italian XXII Corps commanded by General Enrico Pitassi Mannella. The Allies selected another line about 8 kilometers back from the original perimeter and worked on this while the original line was refurbished. Two battalions of the Australian 24th Infantry Brigade and the newly arrived Australian 18th Brigade took over the perimeter. The Australian 20th and 26th brigades took up a covering position on the outside until the 9th of April.

• 3. Rommel's Counteroffensive And Siege Investment

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  In February 1941, Allied leaders decided to hold the area with minimal forces and send the remainder of the Western Desert Force to Greece. The Australian 9th Division and the British 2nd Armoured Division were left to garrison Cyrenaica under Cyrenaica Command led by Lieutenant-General Henry Maitland Wilson. Rommel advanced with the new Deutsches Afrikakorps on the 24th of March. On the 3rd of April, Gambier-Parry received a report that a large enemy armored force was advancing on Msus, site of the main divisional supply dump. The tank brigade was reduced by losses and breakdowns to just 50 tanks. Neame received conflicting reports about positions of Allied and Axis forces and news on the 5th of April that a large Axis force was advancing on El Abiar. He ordered the 9th Australian Division back to Wadi Cuff while elements of the 2nd Armoured Division guarded the desert flank and retired to Mechili. Other reports led Neame to countermand these orders, which caused the Australians much confusion. By the 8th of April, the most advanced German units had arrived at Derna but some units running across the chord of Jebel Akhdar ran out of water and fuel at Tengeder. Heinrich von Prittwitz und Gaffron, commander of the 15th Panzer Division, was sent ahead with reconnaissance, anti-tank, machine-gun, and artillery units to block the eastern exit from Tobruk. On the 10th of April, Rommel made the Suez Canal the objective and ordered that a breakout from Tobruk be prevented. The next day, the port was invested as the 5th Light Division moved to the east side, the Prittwitz group to the south, and the 27th Infantry Division Brescia advanced from the west.

• 4. Air And Naval Warfare Dynamics

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  Fliegerkorps X had sent 300 aircraft to Libya from Sicily in February, flying frequent dive-bomber sorties by day and medium-bomber raids by day and night on docks, buildings, anti-aircraft sites, artillery positions, and airfields. At least ten Hawker Hurricane fighters were based at the port during the day, but by the 23rd of April, three more Hurricanes had been shot down while two others were damaged. On the 25th of April, the squadron was withdrawn entirely. Fighter cover could only be maintained at intervals by the last 10 percent of aircraft in the desert. Axis airfields at Gazala, Derna, and Benina were bombed at dusk and night to limit Axis air attacks on Tobruk. Air Commodore Raymond Collishaw wrote to Air Marshal Arthur Tedder on the 24th of April noting that attrition had caused serious reduction in their fighter force. On the 1st of May, for example, 274 Squadron lost all six Hurricanes it sent on a single mission when a flight of Bf 109s led by Gerhard Homuth engaged them from superior altitude over Tobruk. The Luftwaffe and Regia Aeronautica attempted to cut off sea traffic supplying defenders. Sturzkampfgeschwader 3 arrived in Africa in summer as part of an eight-month long siege costly for the Stuka gruppen. By end of April, virtually all Tobruk-based fighters had been removed from encircled port. Ships lent weapons to defenders; gunboat Ladybird sunk in shallow waters used her 3-inch deck guns against attackers. In April, Draco, Bankura, Urania, and another vessel were sunk by Axis aircraft. On the 4th of May hospital ship Kapara damaged evoking fury on Allied side. Arrival of Italian Ju 87s from 97 Gruppo resulted in sinking of 3,741-ton tanker Helka on the 25th of May before it could reach Tobruk. Escorting sloop Grimsby was damaged and sunk by 3./StG 1.

• 5. Commando Raids And Tactical Patrols

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  The Bardia raid was planned for night of the 16th of June by 'A' Battalion, Layforce to disrupt Axis lines of communication and damage installations. Landing force sailed to area in Landing Craft Assault escorted by anti-aircraft cruiser and destroyers. One LCA could not be lowered and there were difficulties releasing others. Advance Folbot section delayed when submarine had to dive and take evasive action after being mistakenly attacked by Allied aircraft. Main force landed late on wrong beaches but unopposed. Commandos found port empty of Axis forces and faulty intelligence led to some objectives missed. They destroyed an Italian supply dump and coastal artillery battery before re-embarking. Seventy men got lost, ended up on wrong evacuation beach, and were captured. Twin Pimples was defensive strong point outside Tobruk on two hills close together overlooking perimeter held by Italian Army. No. 8 Commando selected to carry out attack which conducted patrols for several days with Indians to reconnoitre ground. Commandos advanced at 01:00 on night of the 19th of July and crossed Italian lines undetected. At supply road they took cover waited until 02:00 and edged forward just before diversion by 18th Cavalry. Password Jock used when position taken and Italians swiftly overcome. Australian engineers planted explosives on several mortars and ammunition dump. Plan assumed it would take 30 minutes for Italian artillery to open fire on captured trenches. Raiders only about 500 meters away when shelling began to come down onto position they had just departed.

• 6. Failed Relief Attempts And Political Fallout

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  Operation Brevity was limited offensive to inflict attrition on Axis forces and secure positions for general offensive toward Tobruk. Allies attacked with small tank-infantry force in three columns seizing top of Halfaya Pass, Bir Wair, and Musaid then pressed on taking Fort Capuzzo. Coast group failed to capture bottom of Halfaya Pass. German counter-attack recovered Musaid while coast group eventually overran foot of pass but next day Allied retirements against German counter-attacks left all but Halfaya Pass in German hands. On the 26th of May Operation Skorpion succeeded ejecting Allies from pass. Brevity failed achieving most objectives only briefly holding Halfaya Pass. Allies lost 45 tanks destroyed and 700 casualties while Germans lost three tanks destroyed and several damaged. On the 12th of May Tiger convoy lost one ship arriving Alexandria with supplies to re-equip 7th Armored Division. Planning began for Operation Battleaxe on the 28th of May. Operation Battleaxe intended lift siege of Tobruk and capture eastern Cyrenaica. Attack conducted by 7th Armored Division and composite infantry force based on 4th Indian Division headquarters with two brigades. Infantry attacked area Bardia, Sollum, Halfaya, and Capuzzo while tanks guarded southern flank. Halfaya Pass attack failed Point 206 captured only one of three attacks on Hafid Ridge succeeded. At end of the 15th of June only 30 tanks remained operational. Next day German counter-attack forced back Allies on western flank but repulsed in center. Allies reduced to 10 tanks and 1,000 casualties. On the 17th of June Allies evaded encirclement by two Panzer regiments ending operation. General Wavell XIII Corps commander Lieutenant-General Noel Beresford-Peirse and Major-General Michael O'Moore Creagh sacked Claude Auchinleck took over as Commander-in-Chief Middle East.

• 7. The Great Relief Operation Crusader

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  Operation Crusader began the 18th of November 1941 with outflanking movement bringing Eighth Army within 16 kilometers of Tobruk perimeter. Planned that 70th Infantry Division would break out from Tobruk the 21st of December cutting German line communication troops border southeast. 7th Armored Division advanced from Sidi Rezegh rendezvous rolling up Axis positions around Tobruk. 2nd New Zealand Division attached to XIII Corps advantage distraction 21st Panzer Division and 15th Panzer Division advancing Sidi Azeiz area overlooking Axis defenses Bardia. 70th Infantry Division attack surprised Rommel who underestimated size garrison number tanks Tobruk. Three-pronged attack 2nd King's Own right flank 2nd Battalion Black Watch center 2nd Queen's Own left flank advanced capture series strong points leading Ed Duda. By mid-afternoon Allies advanced about 10 kilometers toward Ed Duda main supply road where paused clear 7th Armored Division not arrive. Central attack Black Watch involved charge under massed machine-gun fire strongpoint Tiger incurring 201 casualties. On the 22nd of November Scobie ordered position consolidated corridor widened ready Eighth Army. 2nd York and Lancaster Regiment tank support took strong point Lion leaving 3-kilometer gap between corridor Ed Duda. On the 26th of November Scobie ordered attack Ed Duda ridge early hours the 27th of November Tobruk garrison captured ridge later met small force New Zealanders advancing south. At noon the 27th of November 15th Panzer Division reached Bir el Chleta meeting 22nd Armored Brigade reduced composite regiment fewer than fifty tanks joined later by 4th Armored Brigade. Night fell British tanks disengaged New Zealand Division fighting southeast end corridor into Tobruk endangered Afrika Korps. On the 4th of December Rommel attacked Ed Duda repulsed 14th Infantry Brigade 70th Infantry Division. Rommel ordered retirement eastern perimeter Tobruk concentrate XXX Corps south. On the 7th of December 4th Armored Brigade engaged 15th Panzer Division knocked out eleven tanks. Rommel told the 5th of December Comando Supremo supply could not improve until end month when airborne deliveries Sicily began. Rommel decided abandon Tobruk withdraw Gazala leading relief Tobruk occupation Cyrenaica.