Republic of Ireland
The Republic of Ireland covers 26 of the 32 counties on the island of Ireland, and about 5.4 million people live there. Dublin, with over 1.5 million residents, is both its capital and its largest city.
Only one land border exists, and it runs with Northern Ireland, which belongs to the United Kingdom. Everywhere else, the Atlantic Ocean, the Celtic Sea, St George's Channel and the Irish Sea wash the coast.
Yet the official description of this country and the name its own citizens use are not quite the same thing. Why does a state with a settled parliament and a president still argue over what to call itself? How did a rebellion, a treaty and a bitter civil war produce it? And how did a place that lost so many people to hunger and emigration become one of the wealthiest countries on earth, while the language it names first in its constitution struggles to reach daily speech?
Old Irish gave the country its oldest name, Ériu, which traces back to a Proto-Celtic word meaning fertile soil. Both Ireland and Éire grow from that root. So does Ivernia, the Classical Latin name for the island. Respelled Hibernia, under the influence of the Latin word for winter, it survives today as a poetic synonym.
When the state was created in 1922, it was to be "styled and known as the Irish Free State". In Irish, that was Saorstát Éireann. The Constitution adopted in 1937 changed course and declared that "the name of the State is Éire, or, in the English language, Ireland".
Section 2 of the Republic of Ireland Act 1948 then added a sentence: "It is hereby declared that the description of the State shall be the Republic of Ireland." Notice the careful wording. The Act describes the state but does not name it. Naming it would have put the Act in conflict with the Constitution.
The British government wrote "Eire" without the accent mark, and from 1949 it used "Republic of Ireland" for the state. The state itself only began calling itself Ireland after the Good Friday Agreement of 1998.
In everyday speech, people say "the Republic", "Southern Ireland" or "the South", especially when they want to separate the state from the island or discuss "the North". Irish republicans reserve the name Ireland for the whole island. They often say "the Free State", "the 26 Counties" or "the South of Ireland". This usage is described as a "response to the partitionist view … that Ireland stops at the border".
That partition has its roots in the Home Rule campaigns of the late 19th century.
The Act of Union took effect on the 1st of January 1801 and made the island part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Between 1845 and 1849 the Great Famine then cut the island's population of over 8 million by 30 percent. One million people died of starvation and disease. Another 1.5 million emigrated, mostly to the United States. That exodus set the pattern for the following century, and the population kept declining until the 1960s.
From 1874 the Irish Parliamentary Party rose in prominence, and Charles Stewart Parnell led it from 1880. Its first weapon was agrarian agitation through the Irish Land League, which won land reforms for tenants in the Irish Land Acts. Its second was Home Rule, which would have granted Ireland limited national autonomy. Two Home Rule bills failed. Even so, the Local Government Act 1898 moved local affairs into grass-roots hands, away from the landlord-dominated grand juries of the Protestant Ascendancy.
The Parliament Act 1911 abolished the veto of the House of Lords, and Home Rule suddenly seemed certain. In 1914 John Redmond secured the Third Home Rule Act. Opposition had been growing among Irish Protestants since 1886, when the first home rule bill was introduced. They feared discrimination and a loss of economic and social privileges if Irish Catholics gained real political power.
Protestants held a majority in four counties of Ulster, where industrialisation was more common than in the agrarian rest of the island. Unionism was particularly strong there. Sir Edward Carson, born in Dublin, led the Irish Unionist Party, and the Ulsterman Sir James Craig led the Ulster Unionist Party. Under them, unionists became strongly militant and formed the Ulster Volunteers to oppose "the Coercion of Ulster".
After the Home Rule Bill passed parliament in May 1914, Prime Minister H. H. Asquith moved to avoid rebellion in Ulster. He introduced an Amending Bill, which the Irish Party leadership reluctantly accepted. It excluded Ulster temporarily for a trial period of six years, with new measures for the excluded area still undecided. The Act received Royal Assent and entered the statute books in 1914, but its implementation was suspended until after the First World War.
Some 175,000 men joined Irish regiments of the 10th and 16th divisions of the New British Army. Redmond and the Irish National Volunteers had backed the United Kingdom and its Allies, hoping this would secure Home Rule once the war ended. Unionists signed up for the 36th (Ulster) division.
On the 24th of April 1916, the Irish Volunteers who had refused Redmond's lead rose together with the Irish Citizen Army. This was the Easter Rising, and it began with a declaration of independence. After a week of heavy fighting, mostly in Dublin, the surviving rebels surrendered. Most were imprisoned. Fifteen of the prisoners, including most of the leaders, were executed as traitors to the United Kingdom.
Patrick Pearse, the rising's spokesman, had given the signal for the volunteers to begin, and he was among those executed. So was James Connolly, a socialist described as a founder of the Industrial Workers of the World union and of both the Irish and Scottish Labour movements.
The executions, together with the Conscription Crisis of 1918, turned public opinion in Ireland sharply against the British government. In the December 1918 general election, 73 of Ireland's 105 elected MPs were from Sinn Féin, standing on a platform of abstaining from the House of Commons. In January 1919 they set up their own parliament, Dáil Éireann. The first Dáil issued a declaration of independence and proclaimed an Irish Republic. It largely restated the 1916 Proclamation but added that Ireland was no longer part of the United Kingdom. A delegation under Seán T. O'Kelly travelled to the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, but it was not admitted.
A truce in July 1921 ended the War of Independence. From the 11th of October to the 6th of December 1921, British representatives and five Irish delegates negotiated the Anglo-Irish Treaty in London. Arthur Griffith, Robert Barton and Michael Collins led the Irish side. The delegates made their headquarters at Hans Place in Knightsbridge. There, in private discussions on the 5th of December, they decided to recommend the treaty to Dáil Éireann.
The Second Dáil ratified the treaty on the 7th of January 1922 by 64 votes to 57. On the 6th of December 1922, the entire island became a self-governing Dominion called the Irish Free State. It was a constitutional monarchy sharing a monarch with the United Kingdom and other Dominions. A governor-general represented the monarch, a two-chamber parliament sat, and a cabinet called the Executive Council answered to a prime minister titled the President of the Executive Council.
On the 8th of December 1922, Northern Ireland used its right to leave the new Dominion. It rejoined the United Kingdom by an address to the King, asking "that the powers of the Parliament and Government of the Irish Free State shall no longer extend to Northern Ireland."
The Irish Civil War ran from June 1922 to May 1923 and grew directly from the treaty. Éamon de Valera led the anti-treaty side. It objected that the treaty abolished the Irish Republic of 1919, to which its members had sworn loyalty. It also disliked that the state would remain in the British Empire, and that Free State parliamentarians must swear what it saw as an oath of fidelity to the king. Facing public support for the settlement, the anti-treaty side argued that the "people have no right to do wrong".
Michael Collins led the pro-treaty side, which argued that the treaty gave "not the ultimate freedom that all nations aspire to and develop, but the freedom to achieve it". The Irish Republican Army split into two opposing camps. The pro-treaty IRA disbanded and joined the new National Army. Collins built that army up with many tens of thousands of World War I veterans from the Irish regiments of the British Army, which were disbanded in 1922. British artillery, aircraft, machine-guns and ammunition strengthened it further. The anti-treaty IRA lacked an effective command structure, and its fighters, often called the Irregulars, had little public support. A national plebiscite in July 1937 would eventually replace the Free State's constitution altogether.
The Constitution of Ireland, Bunreacht na hÉireann, came into force on the 29th of December 1937 and replaced the Free State's constitution. Articles 2 and 3 defined the national territory as the whole island, but confined the state's jurisdiction to the area of the former Free State.
The Free State government had abolished the Office of Governor-General in December 1936. Even so, whether Ireland was a republic stayed an open question. Diplomats were still accredited to the king. Yet the new elected president handled every internal function of a head of state and gave assent to laws on his own authority. King George VI was only an "organ" provided for by statute law.
During the Second World War, Ireland stayed neutral and called the period The Emergency. The Republic of Ireland Act 1948 came into force on the 18th of April 1949, ended Dominion status and declared the state a republic. At the time, declaring a republic ended Commonwealth membership. Ten days later, the London Declaration of the 28th of April 1949 changed that rule. Ireland did not reapply once republics were allowed to join. In 1962 the Statute Law Revision (Pre-Union Irish Statutes) Act repealed the Crown of Ireland Act 1542 in Ireland.
Ireland joined the United Nations in December 1955. It had earlier been denied membership because of its neutral stance in the Second World War and its refusal to support the Allied cause. Joining meant committing to use force against aggression by one state on another, if the UN thought it necessary.
In the 1950s, Irish interest in the European Communities grew, and the European Free Trade Area was also considered. The United Kingdom intended to seek membership, so Ireland applied in July 1961 because of its substantial economic links with Britain. The founding members doubted Ireland's economic capacity, its neutrality and its protectionist policy. Many Irish economists and politicians concluded that reform was necessary. In 1963 French President General Charles de Gaulle said France opposed Britain's accession, which halted negotiations with every other candidate. His successor, Georges Pompidou, did not oppose British and Irish membership in 1969. The Treaty of Accession was signed in 1972, and a referendum that year confirmed entry. Ireland became a member state on the 1st of January 1973.
For most of the 20th century, the state had no formal relations with Northern Ireland. In the 1980s and 1990s, the British and Irish governments worked with Northern Irish parties to resolve the violent conflict known as The Troubles, which involved many paramilitaries and the British Army. The Good Friday Agreement was approved in 1998 in referendums north and south of the border. A referendum also removed the territorial claim to Northern Ireland from Articles 2 and 3. Later, the United Kingdom's white paper on Brexit stated a "clearly-stated preference is to retain Northern Ireland's current constitutional position: as part of the UK, but with strong links to Ireland". The agreement also created the North/South Ministerial Council, through which the two governments co-operate on a number of policy areas.
Seven years is the term of Ireland's president, who may be re-elected once. The president lives at Áras an Uachtaráin, while the two houses of the Oireachtas meet at Leinster House in Dublin. The role is mainly that of a figurehead, though some constitutional powers are exercised with the advice of the Council of State. In certain areas the office has absolute discretion, such as referring a bill to the Supreme Court to test its constitutionality. Restrictive nomination rules for candidates produced 12.9 percent spoilt votes in the 2025 presidential election. Catherine Connolly became the tenth President on the 11th of November 2025.
No single party has formed a government since 1989, so coalitions have become customary. The Taoiseach, who heads the government, is appointed by the president on the Dáil's nomination. Most Taoisigh have led the party that won the most seats. The Dáil has 174 members, called Teachtaí Dála, elected in multi-seat constituencies by the single transferable vote. The Seanad has sixty members. Eleven are nominated by the Taoiseach, six are elected by two university constituencies, and 43 are chosen by public representatives from vocational panels. A government is limited to fifteen members, no more than two from the Seanad. The Taoiseach, the Tánaiste and the Minister for Finance must all sit in the Dáil.
Thirty-one local authorities run local government. Twenty-six are county councils, two are city and county councils, and three are city councils. The Twentieth Amendment of 1999 gave the system constitutional recognition. In 2014 a second tier of town councils was abolished. The authorities handle planning, local roads, sanitation and libraries.
The Garda Síochána, whose name means Guardians of the Peace, is the civilian police force. Most uniformed members do not routinely carry firearms, and standard policing has traditionally relied on a baton and pepper spray. Behind them stand the Supreme Court, the Court of Appeal, the High Court, the Circuit Court and the District Court. Trials for serious offences must usually be held before a jury. Citizenship law refers to "the island of Ireland", so a person born in Northern Ireland who meets the requirements may claim an Irish passport.
A "triple-lock" governs when Irish troops may join conflict zones. Approval must come from the UN, the Dáil and the Government. The Defence Forces, called Óglaigh na hÉireann, include the Army, Naval Service, Air Corps and Reserve Defence Force. They number almost 10,000 full-time personnel and over 2,000 reservists. Irish peacekeepers have served with the United Nations since 1960, starting with the Congo Crisis and later in Cyprus, Lebanon, and Bosnia and Herzegovina. By 1996, over 40,000 Irish service personnel had served on UN missions.
More than 50,000 Irish people took part in the Second World War by enlisting in the British armed forces, despite their country's neutrality. During the Cuban Missile Crisis, Seán Lemass authorised the search of Cuban and Czechoslovak aircraft passing through Shannon and passed the information to the CIA. Shannon Airport was also used by the United States military during the First Gulf War, the invasion of Afghanistan in 2001 and the invasion of Iraq in 2003. Since 1999, Ireland has belonged to NATO's Partnership for Peace and its Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council. In 2017 it signed the United Nations Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons. In 2024, the Global Peace Index placed it second only to Iceland among the world's most peaceful countries.
In 1987, the government created a low-tax special economic zone with a 10 percent rate, called the International Financial Services Centre. In 2003 the scheme went nationwide, as corporation tax fell from 32 percent to 12.5 percent. The change accelerated Ireland's shift from a mainly agricultural economy to a service economy that attracted American high-tech, life sciences and financial firms. Policy reform had already begun in 1989, with tax cuts, welfare reform, more competition and a ban on borrowing to fund current spending. By the late 1990s Ireland was one of the world's fastest growing economies, in the period called the Celtic Tiger.
Foreign multinationals now employ a quarter of the private sector workforce and pay 80 percent of Irish corporate taxes. By 2017 turnover, 14 of the country's top 20 firms were American-based multinationals, and 80 percent of foreign multinationals in Ireland came from the United States. Ireland adopted the euro in 2002, along with eleven other member states of the European Union.
In 2015, the economy recorded GDP growth of 26.3 percent, while GNP grew by 18.7 percent. The figures were later shown to reflect Apple restructuring its Irish subsidiaries. Paul Krugman termed the episode leprechaun economics. The Central Statistics Office had already created modified gross national income to strip out such distortions. Apple Sales International also faced a threatened European Union fine of 13 billion euros over alleged illegal state aid.
By 2007, Ireland carried the highest private sector debt in the OECD, with household debt at 190 percent of disposable income. Irish banks had borrowed beyond their domestic deposits, to over 180 percent at the peak. Global capital markets withdrew support during the 2008 financial crisis, triggering a deep property correction and a banking crisis. The government accepted an 85 billion euro programme of assistance from the European Union, the IMF and bilateral loans from the United Kingdom, Sweden and Denmark. Unemployment peaked at 15.1 percent in February 2012. Net emigration between 2008 and 2013 totalled 120,100 people, or about 2.6 percent of the population, and one-third of them were aged between 15 and 24. Ireland exited the bailout programme on the 15th of December 2013. By November 2022, unemployment had fallen back to 4.4 percent.
Carrauntoohil, at 1038.6 metres in the MacGillycuddy's Reeks of the southwest, is the highest point in the country. The River Shannon crosses the central lowlands and, at 386 km, is the longest river on the island. The state covers 70,273 square kilometres, about five-sixths of the island's 84,421. The west is rugged, with cliffs, hills, mountains, islands, peninsulas, headlands and bays. Glacial deposits of clay and sand, bogland and lakes mark the central lowlands.
Only about 10 percent of the land is woodland today, and just 2 percent is native woodland. The average across European countries is over 33 percent. Until the end of the Middle Ages the land was heavily forested with oak, ash, hazel, birch and other native trees. The spread of blanket bog and the clearing of woodland for farming are believed to be the main causes of the loss. Agriculture occupies about 64 percent of the land, which leaves little room for large wild mammals. Hedgerows provide a substitute habitat.
On the 26th of June 1887, Kilkenny Castle recorded 33.3 degrees Celsius, the highest temperature ever measured in the country. The lowest, minus 19.1 degrees, came at Markree Castle in Sligo. The Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf Stream moderate the weather, so temperatures are seldom below minus 5 in winter or above 26 in summer. The summer of 1887 was also the sunniest of the hundred years from 1881 to 1980, as measured at the Phoenix Park in Dublin. The year 1980 was the dullest. The far north and west are among the windiest regions in Europe.
In the 2016 census, about 1.75 million people, or 40 percent of the population, said they could speak Irish, which the Constitution calls the national language and first official language. Fewer than 74,000 spoke it daily. As a community language it survives mainly in the Gaeltacht, a small number of rural areas in the west and south. In the Defence Forces, all foot and arms drill commands are given in Irish. Polish is the most widely spoken language after English, with Irish third.
The 2022 census recorded 5,149,139 people, an increase of 8 percent since 2016. Among them were 631,785 non-Irish nationals. Poland was the largest source, with 93,680 people, followed by the United Kingdom with 83,347 and India with 45,449.
Between the 2011 and 2022 censuses, the share of people identifying as Catholic fell from 84.2 percent to 69.1 percent. Weekly mass attendance had already dropped from 81 percent in 1990 to 48 percent in 2006. The Constitution has been secular since 1973, yet about 3,300 primary schools exist and 92 percent of them are under Catholic patronage. Saint Patrick's Day, on the 17th of March, is celebrated at home and abroad as the national day.
Jonathan Swift's Gulliver's Travels, published in 1726, began modern Irish fiction. Bram Stoker wrote Dracula in 1897. James Joyce published Ulysses in 1922, an interpretation of the Odyssey set in Dublin. The Nobel Prize in Literature has gone to William Butler Yeats, Seamus Heaney, George Bernard Shaw in 1925 and Samuel Beckett in 1969.
The rock band U2, formed in 1976, is the best-selling Irish act, with 170 million albums sold worldwide. Ireland has competed in the Eurovision Song Contest since 1965. Dana won in 1970 with All Kinds of Everything, and the country has since won six more times, the most of any nation. Riverdance began as an interval performance at the 1994 contest.
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Common questions
What is the Republic of Ireland?
The Republic of Ireland is a country in Northwestern Europe made up of 26 of the 32 counties of the island of Ireland. It has about 5.4 million people, and its capital and largest city is Dublin.
When did Ireland officially become a republic?
Ireland was officially declared a republic when the Republic of Ireland Act 1948 came into force on the 18th of April 1949. The Act ended the state's Dominion status.
Why is the country called the Republic of Ireland?
Section 2 of the Republic of Ireland Act 1948 declares that the description of the State shall be the Republic of Ireland. The Act describes the state without naming it, because naming it would have conflicted with the 1937 Constitution, which says the name is Éire, or Ireland.
When did Ireland join the European Union?
Ireland joined the European Communities, the predecessor of the European Union, on the 1st of January 1973. It had applied in July 1961, and the Treaty of Accession was signed in 1972.
What caused the Irish Civil War?
The Irish Civil War, fought from June 1922 to May 1923, was caused by the ratification of the Anglo-Irish Treaty and the creation of the Irish Free State. The anti-treaty side led by Éamon de Valera objected to remaining in the British Empire and to the oath to the king, while Michael Collins led the pro-treaty side.
What was the Celtic Tiger in Ireland?
The Celtic Tiger was a period of rapid economic growth in Ireland between 1995 and 2007. Tax cuts, economic reform and a low corporation tax rate helped attract US multinationals, though it ended with the Great Recession and the bursting of the property bubble.
Is the Republic of Ireland a member of NATO?
The Republic of Ireland is not a member of NATO because it has followed a policy of military neutrality. It has belonged to NATO's Partnership for Peace programme since 1999, and a triple-lock rule requires approval from the UN, the Dáil and the Government before Irish troops join conflict zones.
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- 196BookReligion in Europe at the End of the Second Millennium – A Sociological ProfileRoutledge — 2004
- 198Irish poll shows parents no longer want to force religion on to childrenNational Secular Society — 13 April 2007
- 199NewsCatholicism Losing Ground in IrelandJohn Daniszewski — 17 April 2005
- 200Health careIrish Citizens Information Board
- 201Charges for hospital servicesCitizens Information board — 26 July 2011
- 204NewsIreland has EU's highest birth rate7 July 2010
- 205Euro Health Consumer Index 2012Health Consumer Powerhouse — 15 May 2012
- 206NewsEoin Colfer signs Artemis Fowl spin-off series deal11 April 2018
- 207BookWorking and Living in IrelandEugenie Houston — Working and Living Publications — 2001
- 208Hark! The herald Enya sings in historic Cork chapelEoin English — 23 November 2016
- 209Bono: The missionary – People, News – The Independent10 October 2008
- 210NewsU2: What they're still looking forAnthony Mason — CBS News — 24 May 2015
- 211Contemporary Music IrelandContemporary Music Centre – Links
- 212Showband legend Butch Moore diesRaidió Teilifís Éireann — 4 April 2001
- 213DanaRTÉ Television — 11 March 2011
- 214Eurovision Song Contest Statisticseurovisioncovers.co.uk — 2011
- 215A Little Bit EurovisionRTÉ Television — 6 July 2011
- 216On The Road with RiverdanceRTÉ Radio 1 — 1 December 2004
- 217The Megalithic Monuments of IrelandMegalithomania
- 218The Prehistoric Monuments of IrelandAbout.com
- 219AD 43–410 Roman Iron AgeWorldTimelines.org.uk
- 220AD 410–1066 Early medievalWorldTimelines.org.uk
- 222Irish CastlesCastles.me.uk
- 223Butlin RA (1977): The Development of the Irish Town, Croom Helm
- 224Butlin RA: op cit
- 225The Later Middle Ages: 1350 to 1540AskAboutIreland.ie
- 226Thatching in IrelandBallyBegVillage.com
- 227Exterior of Church of Christ the King, Turner's CrossParish of Turner's Cross
- 228About AdamstownSouth Dublin County Council
- 231About RTÉRaidió Teilifís Éireann
- 232What is Saorview?Saorview official website
- 233Media landscape: IrelandEuropean Journalism Centre — 5 November 2010
- 234Listenership 2011/1 Summary ResultsJNLR/Ipsos MRB — 28 July 2011
- 237NewsNow we know ... What's so spooky about barmbrack?Aoife McElwain — 28 October 2017
- 238GAA attendances hold firmGAA official website — 21 July 2011
- 239About the GAAGAA official website
- 241BookWho Stole Our Game?Daire Whelan — Gill & Macmillan Ltd — 2006
- 242About FAIFAI official website
- 243Ireland Are Grand Slam Champions!IRFU — 21 March 2009
- 244NewsIreland is learning to love cricket and deserves more visits from the eliteMike Selvey — 17 March 2011
- 245Golf courses of IrelandWorldGolf
- 246A long and winding roadDublin Marathon official website
- 247Ireland rugby league nation overviewRugby League Planet
- 248NewsIrish Eye Super LeagueSky Sports
- 249International RulesAFL
- 250NewsIceland 'best country for gender equality'BBC News — 12 October 2010
- 251NewsIreland 'most charitable' country in EuropeRTÉ News — 20 December 2010
- 252NORRIS v. IRELAND – 10581/83 1988 ECHR 22European Court of Human Rights — 26 October 2007
- 253Senator David Norris successfully challenged the law in the European Court of Human Rights in 1988, but Irish Government did not introduce and pass legislation to rectify the issue until 1993.
- 254NewsCivil partnership bill backed by Irish politiciansBBC News — 1 July 2010
- 255News'Historic advance' for equality as Civil Partnership Bill passedCarl O'Brien — 2 July 2010
- 257Children and Family Relationships Act 20156 April 2015
- 259NewsTraditional light bulbs to be scrappedRaidió Teilifís Éireann — 10 October 2008
- 260NewsBan on in-store tobacco advertisingRaidió Teilifís Éireann — 30 June 2009
- 261NewsPlain packaging for cigarettes signed into law in IrelandMark Hilliard — 10 March 2015
- 263Flags Used in Northern IrelandCain Web Service
- 264National FlagDepartment of the Taoiseach
- 265JournalThe Story of the National AnthemRuth Sherry — Spring 1996
- 267BookPolitics in the Republic of IrelandJohn Coakley — Taylor & Francis — 20 August 2009
- 268BookIreland: Neutrality and the International Use of ForceKarin Gilland — Routledge — 2001
- 269BookRough guide to IrelandMargaret Greenwood — Rough Guides — 2003
- 270BookJames Clarence Mangan – His Selected PoemsJames Clarence Mangan — Read Books — 2007
- 271BookTwo thousand years of Coptic ChristianityOtto Friedrich August Meinardus — American Univ in Cairo Press — 2002
- 272BookA New History of Ireland: Prehistoric and early IrelandTheodore William Moody — Oxford University Press — 2005