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Winter: the story on HearLore | HearLore
Winter
In the winter of 1683, the River Thames in London froze so solidly that people walked across it, and the water turned into a stage for the Great Frost Fair. This was not a rare anomaly but a defining moment of the Little Ice Age, a period of unpredictable weather that lasted from about 1300 to 1900. The ice was thick enough to support thousands of people, stalls, and even horse-drawn carriages, creating a bizarre spectacle where the city's life moved onto the frozen river. The cold was so intense that the sea froze up to 10 miles out around the coast of the southern North Sea, causing severe problems for shipping and preventing the use of many harbors. This event marked the beginning of a series of winters that would shape history, from the Great Famine of 1315 to the Black Death, as the cold weakened immunity and caused malnutrition. The Thames would freeze again in 1739, 1784, and 1795, each time altering the course of trade, war, and daily life. The last frost fair was held in 1814, after which the removal of the old London Bridge and changes to the river's banks made freeze-overs less likely, signaling the end of an era where winter could halt civilization.
The Science of Cold
The tilt of the Earth's axis at 23.44 degrees is the primary driver of winter, causing different latitudes to face the Sun differently as the planet orbits. When the Northern Hemisphere is tilted away from the Sun, it receives less solar radiation, and the sunlight hits the Earth at an oblique angle, meaning less energy strikes each unit of surface area. The light must also travel a longer distance through the atmosphere, allowing the atmosphere to dissipate more heat. This effect is so dominant that the variation in the Earth's distance from the Sun due to its elliptical orbit is negligible. The result is a season where the Sun's elevation is at its most negative value, creating the shortest day and longest night at the winter solstice. In the Southern Hemisphere, the situation is reversed, with winter occurring when the Northern Hemisphere is tilted more toward the Sun. The manifestation of meteorological winter is highly variable, depending on elevation, position versus marine winds, and the amount of precipitation. For instance, Winnipeg, a city in the landlocked Great Plains region within Canada, has a January high of -10°C and a low of -20°C, while Vancouver, a city on Canada's west coast with a marine influence from moderating Pacific winds, has a January low of 0°C, with days well above freezing. Both cities are at 49°N latitude and in the same western half of the continent, yet their winters are worlds apart.
The Calendar of Cold
Ancient cultures divided the year into two seasons: winter and summer, a concept that survived in parts of Europe into the early middle ages. In the Julian calendar used in the ancient Roman world, winter began on the 10th of November, its midpoint was the winter solstice on the 25th of December, and winter ended on the 6th of February. In Christian Anglo-Saxon calendars, winter began on the 7th of November, its midpoint was the solstice or Midwinter on the 25th of December, and winter ended on the 6th of February. Bede also mentions an older 'two-season' year, where summer ended and winter began at the full moon during the month of Winterfylleth, in October. For many mainland European countries, especially Germanic regions, winter began at Martinmas (Saint Martin's Day) on the 11th of November. In Celtic nations, winter began on the 1st of November and the time around the winter solstice was seen as the middle of winter. In Gaelic Ireland and Scotland, winter began with the festival of Samhain on the 1st of November and ended with Imbolc on the 1st of February. In Wales, winter began with the festival of Calan Gaeaf (calends of winter) on the 1st of November and ended on the 1st of February. In Scandinavia, winter is deemed to begin earlier and end later than most of Europe. Among the Norsemen, it opened with the festival of Winter Nights, which began on the Thursday between 9 and the 15th of October. In an old Norwegian tradition, winter begins on the 14th of October and ends on the last day of February. In Chinese astronomy and other East Asian calendars, winter is taken to commence on or around the 7th of November, on Lìdōng, and end with the arrival of spring on 3 or the 4th of February, on Lìchūn. In many countries in the Southern Hemisphere, including Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa, winter begins on the 1st of June and ends on the 31st of August.
Common questions
When did the Great Frost Fair on the River Thames take place?
The Great Frost Fair on the River Thames took place in the winter of 1683. This event occurred when the river froze so solidly that people walked across it and the water became a stage for the fair. The last frost fair was held in 1814 after changes to the river made freeze-overs less likely.
What causes the Earth to experience winter seasons?
The tilt of the Earth's axis at 23.44 degrees is the primary driver of winter. This tilt causes different latitudes to face the Sun differently as the planet orbits, resulting in less solar radiation reaching the Northern Hemisphere when it is tilted away from the Sun. The variation in the Earth's distance from the Sun due to its elliptical orbit is negligible compared to the effect of the axial tilt.
How did ancient cultures define the start and end of winter?
Ancient cultures divided the year into two seasons with winter beginning on various dates such as the 10th of November in the Julian calendar or the 1st of November in Celtic nations. In Christian Anglo-Saxon calendars, winter began on the 7th of November and ended on the 6th of February. Norsemen opened winter with the festival of Winter Nights on the Thursday between 9 and the 15th of October, while Chinese calendars marked it on or around the 7th of November.
Which animals adapt to winter through hibernation or migration?
Migratory birds and some butterflies migrate seasonally to survive winter conditions. Animals such as gophers, frogs, snakes, bats, and bears become dormant during winter and only come out when the warm weather returns. Squirrels, beavers, skunks, badgers, and raccoons store food for the winter and live on it instead of hibernating completely.
What caused the Year Without a Summer in 1816?
The Year Without a Summer in 1816 was caused by the eruption of Mount Tambora in Indonesia in April 1815. The cumulative effects were worldwide but were especially strong in the Eastern United States, Atlantic Canada, and Northern Europe. Frost formed in May in New England, killing many newly planted crops, and snow fell in New York and Maine in June.
How does winter affect human health and what are the coldest recorded winters?
Winter cold compromises the body's ability to maintain core and surface heat, leading to injuries such as hypothermia, frostbite, trench foot, and chilblains. The winter of 1794, 1795 recorded the lowest temperature ever in London at -21°F on the 25th of January. In the United States, a record five-week cold spell bottomed out at -40°F in Hartford, Connecticut and -15°F in New York City.
To survive the harshness of winter, many animals have developed different behavioral and morphological adaptations for overwintering. Migration is a common effect of winter upon animals such as migratory birds, and some butterflies also migrate seasonally. Hibernation is a state of reduced metabolic activity during the winter, distinguished from sleep by a marked reduction in metabolic functions. Some animals, such as gophers, frogs, snakes, bats, and bears, become dormant during winter and only come out when the warm weather returns. Some animals, such as squirrels, beavers, skunks, badgers, and raccoons, store food for the winter and live on it instead of hibernating completely. Resistance is observed when an animal endures winter but changes in ways such as color and musculature. The color of the fur or plumage changes to white to camouflage with snow and thus retains its cryptic coloration year-round. Examples are the rock ptarmigan, Arctic fox, weasel, white-tailed jackrabbit, and mountain hare. Some fur-coated mammals grow a heavier coat during the winter to improve the heat-retention qualities of fur. The coat is then shed following the winter season to allow better cooling. The heavier coat in winter made it a favorite season for trappers, who sought more profitable skins. Snow also affects the ways animals behave; many take advantage of the insulating properties of snow by burrowing in it. Mice and voles typically live under the snow layer. Some annual plants never survive the winter, while others require winter cold to complete their life cycle, a process known as vernalization. As for perennials, many small ones profit from the insulating effects of snow by being buried in it. Larger plants, particularly deciduous trees, usually let their upper part go dormant, but their roots are still protected by the snow layer. Few plants bloom in the winter, one exception being the flowering plum, which flowers in time for Chinese New Year.
The Year Without a Summer
The year 1816 was known as the Year Without a Summer in the Northern Hemisphere, a period of unusual coolness caused by the eruption of Mount Tambora in Indonesia in April 1815. The cumulative effects were worldwide but were especially strong in the Eastern United States, Atlantic Canada, and Northern Europe. Frost formed in May in New England, killing many newly planted crops, and the summer never recovered. Snow fell in New York and Maine in June, and ice formed in lakes and rivers in July and August. In the UK, snow drifts remained on hills until late July, and the Thames froze in September. Agricultural crops failed and livestock died in much of the Northern Hemisphere, resulting in food shortages and the worst famine of the 19th century. This event was part of a series of severe winters and cold, wet summers in Europe, the first clear manifestation of the unpredictable weather of the Little Ice Age. The persistently cold, wet weather caused great hardship, was primarily responsible for the Great Famine of 1315, 1317, and strongly contributed to the weakened immunity and malnutrition leading up to the Black Death (1348, 1350). The eruption of Huaynaputina in Peru in 1600 caused extremely cold winters in Switzerland and the Baltic region from 1600 to 1602. The explosion of Krakatoa in August 1883 led to colder temperatures worldwide, including an unbroken string of abnormally cold and brutal winters in the Upper Midwest, related to the explosion of Krakatoa in August 1883. There was snow recorded in the UK as early as October and as late as July during this period.
The Human Cost of Cold
Humans are sensitive to winter cold, which compromises the body's ability to maintain both core and surface heat of the body. Slipping on icy surfaces is a common cause of winter injuries, and other injuries from the cold include hypothermia, frostbite, trench foot, and chilblains. Hypothermia leads to shivering, uncoordinated movements, and death, while frostbite causes freezing of skin, leading to loss of feeling and damaged tissue. Trench foot results in numbness, leading to damaged tissue and gangrene, and chilblains cause capillary damage in digits that can lead to more severe cold injuries. Rates of influenza, COVID-19, and other respiratory diseases also increase during the winter. The winter of 1779, 1780 was Scotland's coldest winter on record, and ice surrounded Iceland in every direction. In the United States, a record five-week cold spell bottomed out at -40°F in Hartford, Connecticut and -15°F in New York City. The Hudson River and New York's harbor froze over. The winter of 1794, 1795 was a severe winter, with the coldest January in the UK and the lowest temperature ever recorded in London: -21°F on the 25th of January. The cold began on Christmas Eve and lasted until late March, with a few temporary warm-ups. The Severn and Thames froze, and frost fairs started up again. The French army tried to invade the Netherlands over its frozen rivers, while the Dutch fleet was stuck in its harbor. The winter had easterlies (from Siberia) as its dominant feature.
The Mythology of Darkness
In Persian culture, the winter solstice is called Yaldā, meaning birth, and has been celebrated for thousands of years. It is referred to as the eve of the birth of Mithra, who symbolized light, goodness, and strength on Earth. In Greek mythology, Hades kidnapped Persephone to be his wife. Zeus ordered Hades to return her to Demeter, the goddess of the Earth and her mother. Hades tricked Persephone into eating the food of the dead, so Zeus decreed that she spend six months with Demeter and six months with Hades. During the time her daughter is with Hades, Demeter became depressed and caused winter. In Welsh mythology, Gwyn ap Nudd abducted a maiden named Creiddylad. On May Day, her lover, Gwythr ap Greidawl, fought Gwyn to win her back. The battle between them represented the contest between summer and winter. These myths reflect the deep human connection to the season, where the darkness and cold are not just physical phenomena but spiritual and emotional forces. The winter solstice, the day with the fewest hours of daylight, has been a time of reflection, celebration, and fear across cultures. In the Northern Hemisphere, depending on the year, the period between 20, 21, or the 22nd of December and 19, 20, or the 21st of March corresponds to the time when the season takes up two calendar years, as summer does in the Southern Hemisphere. Each calendar year includes parts of two winters, causing ambiguity in associating a winter with a particular year, such as winter 2001. Solutions for this problem include naming both years, such as winter 2001-02, or settling on the year the season starts in or on the year most of its days belong to, which is the later year for most definitions.