Classical Latin

• 1. Origins And Development

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  Around 75 BC, a specific form of Latin emerged from the chaotic mix of Old Latin dialects. Writers in the late Roman Republic began treating this new standard as proper or good Latin. They distinguished it sharply from the common vernacular known as Vulgar Latin. This distinction created two registers: sermo vulgaris for daily speech and Latinitas for high literature. Cicero and his contemporaries used these terms to separate themselves from other languages like Greek. The word Latin now defaults to mean Classical Latin in modern textbooks. By the third century AD, this form evolved into Late Latin. Later periods viewed the earlier version as correct while seeing the later forms as debased or corrupted.

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• 2. Philological Constructs

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  Roman grammarians devised lists called indices or ordines modeled after Greek pinakes. These lists identified authors considered exemplary models of the language. Marcus Cornelius Fronto used the term scriptores classici to describe reliable first-class writers in the second century AD. The word classicus originally referred to members of the prima classis, the highest property-owning social group. It also translated the Greek concept of approved ones selected by property rank. Quintilian drew up canonical lists that included figures like Plautus who wrote in Old Latin. Aulus Gellius noted that Ennius served as the Latin equivalent of Homer. Interest in these select writers declined during the medieval period when inferior medieval Latin took over. Thomas Sébillet applied the term classical to French poets in 1548. David Ruhnken secularized the concept by applying canon to rhetorical lists in 1768.

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• 3. Ages Of Literature

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  Wilhelm Sigismund Teuffel published Geschichte der Römischen Literatur in 1870 to define Classical Latin through historical periods. He dated the Golden Age from 83 BC to 14 AD based on political events rather than style alone. This timeframe spanned the dictatorship of Sulla Felix and the death of Augustus. Charles Thomas Cruttwell produced an English translation in 1873 that gained immediate success. Cruttwell focused heavily on stylistic analysis while Teuffel prioritized history. They divided the era into a Ciceronian Age ending with Cicero's death in 43 BC. The subsequent Augustan Epoch ran from 42 BC until 14 AD. Cruttwell admitted difficulty naming the first phase, calling it from Livius to Sulla. He described the language as marked by immaturity and vigorous but ill-disciplined imitation of Greek models. Some abstracts regarding these phases hold little meaning for those not well-versed in Latin literature.

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• 4. Stylistic Shifts

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  Silver Latin distinguished itself through exaggerated conciseness and occasional archaic words derived from poetry. The Emperor Claudius referred to both Latin and Greek languages in Suetonius, noting increased Greek usage. Literary reminiscences became common features of Silver Age prose. Authors used words from the common dialect like dictare alongside classical dicere. John Edwin Sandys summarized these differences decades later as distinct from Golden standards. Tiberius brought about a sudden collapse of letters where freedom of speech vanished. Artists adopted new dazzling mannerisms which Teuffel called utter unreality. Pliny wrote Natural History showing much remained to be done despite claims of decline. Marcus Aurelius served as emperor over the last generation of classicists and himself a model. His philosophic prose proved incompatible with views of unnatural language or total decline. The Silver Age furnished only two extant Latin novels: Apuleius's The Golden Ass and Petronius's Satyricon.

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• 5. Linguistic Features

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  Quintilianus noted that the letter c represented the sound k without palatalization in Institutio oratoria. He stated it suited all vowels equally well. The archaic Greek digamma representing w lacked existence in Latin for words like servus. V and u were not distinguished between, both pronounced as w. The letter i applied to both i and j sounds as seen in variant spellings like Maiia. Romans used diacritics such as circumflex and acute accents to denote stress patterns. Final obstruents were devoiced while maintaining spelling conventions like obtinuit. Donatus defined numerous grammatical terms in Ars grammatica through question-and-answer formats. Varro classified words as local, foreign, obsolete, body, place, time, and action by 47 BC. Quintilian established modern systems where nouns divided further by tangibility. Impersonal verbs like licet and piget existed alongside singular and plural tantum forms.

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• 6. Etymology Debates

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  Varro preferred deducing etymology by relating words with other Latin words rather than external sources. He indicated humilis derived from humus due to shared connotations of lowliness. This method sometimes caused implausible results regarding solus gaining its name because earth can only be trodden. Quintilian criticized these counterintuitive links connecting lucus grove with luceo shine or ludus school with ludo play. He argued ager field related to agi to be done was incorrect. Instead he considered some terms Greek loanwords or onomatopoeia like graculus jackdaws. Varro used deliberate misspellings to suit his theories despite criticism. The conflict between descriptivists called anomalists and prescriptivists known as analogists remained significant. Analogists derived correct grammar rules based on analogy while anomalists supported irregularities. Quintilian advocated pursuing agreement only among the educated as custom origin of language.

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• 7. Foreign Influences

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  Greek influence entered Latin orthography through letters k and x plus diagraphs like ei. Quintilianian critics noted non-standard spellings such as ī written as ei. Children learned Greek before Latin in Roman education systems despite concerns about contamination. Gallic words like rheda chariot and petorritum four-wheeled carriage appeared even in Cicero's texts. Mappa napkin came from Carthagine while Gurdus foolish slang originated in Spain. Casnar parasite derived from Gallia and Mastruca shaggy garment from Sardinia. Romans combined different loanwords to form compound words like epihedium from Greek prefix epi- and Gallic rheda. Variations existed geographically with h often dropped in countryside regions. E replaced æ in city speech according to Varro's observations. Debates regarding foreign influence and varieties existed already within classical times alongside standardization efforts.

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