Reincarnation
The word reincarnation derives from a Latin term that literally means entering the flesh again. This phrase entered English usage through modern philosophers such as Kurt Gödel. An alternative term is transmigration, implying migration from one life to another. The Greek equivalent to reincarnation is metempsychosis, which derives from meta meaning change and psuche meaning soul. A third Greek term sometimes used synonymously is palingenesis, meaning being born again. These linguistic roots reveal how ancient cultures conceptualized the movement of consciousness after death. The concept refers to the belief that an aspect of every human being continues to exist after death. This aspect may be the soul, mind, consciousness, or something transcendent which is reborn in an interconnected cycle of existence. The transmigration belief varies by culture, and is envisioned to be in the form of a newly born human being, animal, plant, spirit, or as a being in some other non-human realm of existence.
Reincarnation is a central tenet of Indian religions such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism. The concepts of the cycle of birth and death, samsara, and liberation partly derive from ascetic traditions that arose in India around the middle of the first millennium BCE. The first textual references to the idea of reincarnation appear in the Rigveda, Yajurveda and Upanishads of the late Vedic period between 1100 and 500 BCE. These texts predate both Buddha and Mahavira. Detailed descriptions first appear around the mid-1st millennium BCE in diverse traditions including Buddhism, Jainism and various schools of Hindu philosophy. Each tradition gave unique expression to the general principle. The Purananuru, part of Sangam literature contains several mentions of rebirth and moksha. The text explains Hindu rituals surrounding death such as making riceballs called pinda and cremation. The earliest layers of Vedic text incorporate the concept of life, followed by an afterlife in heaven and hell based on cumulative virtues or vices. However, ancient Vedic rishis challenged this idea because people do not live equally moral or immoral lives.
Early Greek discussion of the concept dates to the sixth century BCE. An early Greek thinker known to have considered rebirth is Pherecydes of Syros who flourished around 540 BCE. His younger contemporary Pythagoras lived from approximately 570 to 495 BCE and instituted societies for its diffusion. Plato presented accounts of reincarnation in his works particularly the Myth of Er where Socrates tells how Er returned to life on the twelfth day after death. In the Timaeus, Plato believes that the soul moves from body to body without any distinct reward-or-punishment phase between lives. The Orphic religion taught reincarnation about the sixth century BCE and produced a copious literature. Orpheus proclaimed the need of the grace of the gods Dionysus in particular and of self-purification until the soul has completed the spiral ascent of destiny to live forever. Julius Caesar recorded that the druids of Gaul Britain and Ireland had metempsychosis as one of their core doctrines. Diodorus Siculus also recorded the Gaul belief that human souls were immortal and that after a prescribed number of years they would commence upon a new life in another body.
The belief in reincarnation developed among Jewish mystics in the medieval world with differing explanations given of the afterlife though with universal belief in an immortal soul. It was explicitly rejected by Saadiah Gaon. Today reincarnation is an esoteric belief within many streams of modern Judaism. Kabbalah teaches a belief in gilgul transmigration of souls hence the belief in reincarnation is universal in Hasidic Judaism which regards the Kabbalah as sacred and authoritative. The Zohar first published in the 13th century discusses reincarnation at length especially in the Torah portion Balak. The most comprehensive kabbalistic work on reincarnation Shaar HaGilgulim was written by Chaim Vital based on the teachings of his mentor Isaac Luria who lived in the 16th century. The 18th-century Lithuanian master scholar Elijah of Vilna known as the Vilna Gaon authored a commentary on the biblical Book of Jonah as an allegory of reincarnation. The practice of conversion to Judaism is sometimes understood within Orthodox Judaism in terms of reincarnation when non-Jews are drawn to Judaism it is because they had been Jews in a former life.
Christianity historically and almost universally rejects reincarnation while a minority of groups believe that it has occurred. Reincarnationism or biblical reincarnation is the belief that certain people are or can be reincarnations of biblical figures such as Jesus Christ and the Virgin Mary. Some Christians believe that certain New Testament figures are reincarnations of Old Testament figures for example John the Baptist is believed by some to be a reincarnation of the prophet Elijah. The Catholic Church does not believe in reincarnation which it regards as incompatible with death. Around the 11-12th century in Europe several reincarnationist movements were persecuted as heresies through the establishment of the Inquisition in the Latin west. These included the Cathar Paterene or Albigensian church of western Europe the Paulician movement which arose in Armenia and the Bogomils in Bulgaria. Druze faith considers reincarnation a paramount tenet where souls transfer instantly at one's death from human body to human body only. The number of souls existing is finite and souls cannot be divided into different or separate parts.
By the 19th century philosophers Schopenhauer and Nietzsche could access Indian scriptures for discussion of the doctrine of reincarnation. This recommended itself to American Transcendentalists Henry David Thoreau Walt Whitman and Ralph Waldo Emerson. By the early 20th century interest in reincarnation had been introduced into nascent psychology largely due to influence of William James who raised aspects of philosophy of mind comparative religion and nature of empiricism. Famous World War II American General George Patton was a strong believer in reincarnation believing among other things he was a reincarnation of Carthaginian General Hannibal. Popular awareness of idea of reincarnation was boosted by Theosophical Society dissemination of systematized and universalised Indian concepts also by influence of magical societies like The Golden Dawn. Notable personalities like Annie Besant W.B. Yeats and Dion Fortune made subject almost as familiar element of popular culture west as east. Demographic survey data from 1999 to 2002 shows significant minority of people from Europe 22% and America 20% believe existence of life before birth and after death leading to physical rebirth. Academic psychiatrist Ian Stevenson reported that belief in reincarnation is held with variations in details by adherents of almost all major religions except Christianity and Islam.
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Common questions
What is the origin of the word reincarnation?
The word reincarnation derives from a Latin term that literally means entering the flesh again. This phrase entered English usage through modern philosophers such as Kurt Gödel.
When did textual references to reincarnation first appear in Indian religions?
The first textual references to the idea of reincarnation appear in the Rigveda, Yajurveda and Upanishads of the late Vedic period between 1100 and 500 BCE. These texts predate both Buddha and Mahavira.
Which ancient Greek thinkers discussed the concept of rebirth?
Early Greek discussion of the concept dates to the sixth century BCE with Pherecydes of Syros who flourished around 540 BCE. His younger contemporary Pythagoras lived from approximately 570 to 495 BCE and instituted societies for its diffusion.
How does Kabbalah explain the belief in reincarnation within Judaism?
Kabbalah teaches a belief in gilgul transmigration of souls hence the belief in reincarnation is universal in Hasidic Judaism which regards the Kabbalah as sacred and authoritative. The Zohar first published in the 13th century discusses reincarnation at length especially in the Torah portion Balak.
Why does Christianity historically reject the doctrine of reincarnation?
Christianity historically and almost universally rejects reincarnation while a minority of groups believe that it has occurred. The Catholic Church does not believe in reincarnation which it regards as incompatible with death.