Prometheus

• 1. Origins And Etymology

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  The name Prometheus appears in the late 8th-century BC Greek epic poet Hesiod's Theogony. Scholars debate whether this name signifies forethought, as his brother Epimetheus denotes afterthought. Hesychius of Alexandria gives Prometheus the variant name Ithas and describes him as the Herald of the Titans. Diodorus Siculus in the first century BC suggests that Prometheus was originally the human inventor of fire-sticks used to kindle fire through friction. This primitive method involves a vertical piece of wood rubbing against a horizontal one to produce heat. Some theories link Prometheus to the Sumerian myth of Enki or Ea who brought civilization to humanity. Other scholars once suggested a connection to the Vedic fire bringer Mātariśvan though this theory lost favor in the 20th century.

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• 2. Ancient Literary Traditions

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  Hesiod's Works and Days expands upon Zeus withholding not only fire but also the means of life from humanity. Aeschylus wrote Prometheus Bound perhaps the most famous treatment of the myth among Greek tragedies during the 5th century BC. In this drama Prometheus claims to have taught humans writing mathematics agriculture medicine and science. He asserts that Zeus had wanted to obliterate the human race but he stopped him. Aeschylus anachronistically injects Io another victim of Zeus into Prometheus story. The playwright attributes secret knowledge to Prometheus that could lead to Zeus downfall. Fragmentary evidence indicates Heracles frees the Titan in the trilogy second play Prometheus Unbound. The final play Prometheus the Fire-Bringer remains lost to antiquity. Plato contrasts Prometheus with his dull-witted brother Epimetheus in the dialogue Protagoras written during his lifetime.

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• 3. Religious Cults And Rituals

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  Writing in the 2nd century AD satirist Lucian points out that while temples for major Olympians were everywhere none existed for Prometheus. Athens was the exception where Prometheus worshipped alongside Athena and Hephaestus. The altar of Prometheus in the grove of the Academy served as origin point for several significant processions on the Athenian calendar. For the Panathenaic festival a torch race began at this altar located outside sacred city boundary. Teams of runners passed off a flaming torch through Kerameikos district inhabited by potters and artisans. The race traveled to heart of city where it kindled sacrificial fire on altar of Athena atop Acropolis. Pausanias recorded these footraces called lampadedromia first instituted at Athens in honor of Prometheus. By Classical period races run by ephebes also honored Hephaestus and Athena. Wreaths worn symbolized chains of Prometheus during the Prometheia festival. Argos and Opous claimed to be Prometheus final resting place each erecting tomb in his honor.

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• 4. Renaissance Artistic Revivals

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  Among most famous examples is Piero di Cosimo painting from about 1510 now displayed at museums of Munich and Strasburg. The Munich panel represents dispute between Epimetheus and Prometheus with handsome triumphant statue of new man modeled by Prometheus. Strasburg panel shows distance Prometheus lighting torch at wheels of Sun while foreground depicts him applying torch to heart of statue. Parmigianino created drawing now located in Morgan Library Museum New York City presenting noble rendering of Prometheus evoking memory of Michelangelo works portraying Jehovah. William Shakespeare uses Promethean allusion in death scene of Desdemona in Othello written during late British Renaissance. Othello asserts he cannot restore Promethean heat to her body once extinguished. This analogy bears direct resemblance to biblical narrative creation of life in Adam through bestowed breathing of creator in Genesis. Boccaccio followed tradition of allegorical interpretation distinguishing two versions of myth in Genealogiae written in fifteenth century. Marsilio Ficino updated philosophical reception in Quaestiones Quinque de Mente published 1476, 77 reading myth as image human soul seeking supreme truth.

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• 5. Modern Cultural Symbolism

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  Mary Shelley wrote Frankenstein when she was 18 years old publishing it in 1818 two years before Percy Shelley play. She subtitled novel Modern Prometheus referencing themes over-reaching modern humanity into dangerous areas knowledge. Franz Kafka wrote short piece titled Prometheus outlining four aspects including being clamped to rock in Caucasus for betraying secrets gods to men. Ted Hughes wrote 1973 collection of poems titled Prometheus on His Crag. Nepali poet Laxmi Prasad Devkota also wrote epic titled Prometheus. Ayn Rand cited Prometheus myth in Anthem The Fountainhead and Atlas Shrugged using character metaphor creative people rebelling against confines modern society. American Prometheus book released 2005 about Robert J. Oppenheimer father atomic bomb. Artificial chemical element promethium named after Titan. Saturn moon Prometheus bears his name. Eulenspiegel Society began magazine Prometheus early 1970s exploring issues important kinksters ranging art erotica advice columns personal ads philosophy consensual kink.

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• 6. Musical And Theatrical Adaptations

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  Franz Liszt composed symphonic poem Prometheus from 1850 among other Symphonic Poems numbered five S.99. Alexander Scriabin created Prometheus Poem Fire Opus 60 written 1910 for orchestra. Gabriel Fauré composed three-act opera Prométhée published 1910. Charles-Valentin Alkan wrote Grande sonate Les quatre âges 1847 with fourth movement entitled Prométhée enchaîné. Beethoven composed score ballet version Creatures of Prometheus 1801. Hugo Wolf adapted Goethe poetic version as Prometheus Bedecke deinen Himmel Zeus 1889 part of Goethe-lieder voice piano later transcribed orchestra. Carl Orff composed opera Prometheus 1968 using Aeschylus Greek language Prometheia. Rudolf Wagner-Régeny composed Prometheus opera 1959. Luigi Nono created Prometeo sequence nine cantatas composed between 1981 and 1984. Libretto Italian written by Massimo Cacciari selecting texts Aeschylus Walter Benjamin Rainer Maria Rilke presenting different versions myth without telling any version literally.

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