Muslim Brotherhood
In March 1928, in the Suez Canal city of Ismailia, the schoolteacher and imam Hassan al-Banna gathered six workers of the Suez Canal Company and founded the Society of the Muslim Brothers. The world knows it as the Muslim Brotherhood, a transnational Sunni Islamist organization. Its growth was startling. It counted 800 members in 1936, 200,000 by 1938, and over 2 million by 1948. Today it is banned in Egypt, its birthplace. In other countries it has sat in parliaments, run charities and shaped school systems. Governments cannot agree on what it is, and scholars cannot either. What did it actually want? How did one organization produce hospitals and assassinations alike? And why do rulers across the region still treat it as a threat, a rival or a patron?
"Islam is the solution" is the slogan most closely tied to the Brotherhood, and it compresses a whole worldview. Al-Banna taught that Islam had lost its social dominance because most Muslims had been corrupted by Western influences. In his view, Sharia law drawn from the Qur'an and the Sunnah came from God. It should govern every part of life, from the organization of government to everyday problems. The movement's self-stated aim is a state ruled by Sharia under a caliphate.
Charity gave that message a daily presence. Early members preached Islam across Egypt, taught the illiterate, and set up hospitals and business enterprises. Pharmacies and schools followed. In Ismailia, the Suez Canal Company helped al-Banna build the mosque that became the movement's headquarters, according to Richard P. Mitchell's book The Society of Muslim Brothers.
Al-Banna's message was also populist. He defended workers against the tyranny of foreign and monopolist companies. On women's rights he held highly conservative views. He opposed equal rights for women, though he supported establishing justice towards them.
Then, starting in 1936, the movement began to oppose British rule in Egypt.
Between 1938 and 1940 or 1941, the Brotherhood formed an armed wing called the Secret Apparatus, or al-Nizam al-Khas. It succeeded the "battalions" that the movement had established in late 1937. Its stated goals were to fight the British until they left Egypt, and to fight British collaborators and Zionists. It also protected the Brotherhood from the police and infiltrated the Communist movement.
A committee of five led the Secret Apparatus, and each member commanded one tightly knit cell. Only the most committed members were invited, mostly young students or men with salaried jobs. Recruits were taught to obey, were given weapons, and underwent heavy physical training. They also learned the concepts of jihad and underground operations. Its first operation was allegedly a bomb thrown at a British club near the end of World War II.
The war years raised other suspicions. The Brotherhood displayed pro-Axis sympathies, so the British temporarily banned its newsletters, watched its meetings and arrested provincial leaders. Al-Banna himself was briefly taken into custody, and he eventually acknowledged his loyalty to the British. Before the war, the movement had grown connections with Nazi Germany through the Deutsches Nachrichtenbüro in Cairo and through Amin al-Husseini. Germany may have funded the Brotherhood as early as 1934, and a later British source claimed that more than 5,000 pounds arrived in 1936 alone. Al-Banna denied ever receiving German money. He and other members admired Nazi militarism and its centralization around a charismatic leader, but they rejected its racial policies. In his 1948 book Peace in Islam, al-Banna denounced fascism and militarism.
In March 1948, the Secret Apparatus assassinated a respected judge who had given a life sentence to a Muslim Brother for attacking British soldiers. That November, after several bombings and alleged assassination attempts, the Egyptian government arrested 32 leaders of the Secret Apparatus and banned the Brotherhood. Officials linked the group to a jeep loaded with weapons and accused it of preparing to overthrow the government. Its headquarters were closed, its funds confiscated, and 4,000 Brothers detained.
On the 28th of December, a young member of the Secret Apparatus assassinated Prime Minister Mahmoud El Nokrashy Pasha. Al-Banna claimed the killer had acted independently and publicly denounced his faith. After a lethal bombing in mid-January 1949, meant to destroy legal evidence pending against the Brotherhood, al-Banna was himself killed on the 12th of February by vengeful Nokrashy supporters. In 1952, members were accused of taking part in the Cairo Fire, which destroyed some 750 buildings. Most were night clubs, theatres, hotels and restaurants frequented by British and other foreigners.
In his 1964 book Milestones, the thinker Sayyid Qutb promoted takfirism. The doctrine permits "the stigmatisation of other Muslims as infidel or apostate, and of existing states as un-Islamic, and the use of extreme violence in the pursuit of the perfect Islamic society". It continues to inspire many jihadist movements. The Brotherhood itself abandoned violence in the 1970s. Even so, it has no clear ideological platform on violence, and scholars read that gap in sharply different ways.
From 1936 to 1939, the great Arab revolt in Palestine became a central concern for the early Brotherhood. Al-Banna had been in contact with Amin al-Husseini since 1927. Absent before the revolt, aggressive anti-Jewish rhetoric now appeared. The movement's weekly, al-Nadhir, ran a series titled "The Danger of Jews". In 1938 it demanded that Egypt's Jews either adopt an openly anti-Zionist stance or face "hostility". The Brotherhood later distributed a list of Jewish business owners and called for a boycott. Conflating Jews with Zionists was common at the time.
Al-Banna's brother, 'Abd al-Rahman al-Banna, went to Mandatory Palestine and established the Brotherhood there in 1935. Al-Husseini, whom the British eventually appointed Grand Mufti of Jerusalem, led the group there. In May 1946, al-Husseini escaped French imprisonment and arrived in Cairo, after serving as a German propaganda mouthpiece between 1941 and 1945. Al-Banna welcomed him as a "miracle of a man" with "a divine spark in his heart", and pledged loyalty against the Zionists.
The United Nations voted in November 1947 to partition Palestine into a Jewish and an Arab state. The Brotherhood had opposed UN involvement since April, and volunteers entered Palestine as early as October 1947. Al-Banna had promised 10,000 fighters, but only some 1,500 were present by March 1948. After Israel declared independence on the 14th of May, five Arab states invaded the next day, Egypt among them. Brotherhood fighters assisted the Egyptian army northeast of Gaza, and some were active in the West Bank. They suffered a few hundred casualties and had limited impact on the war's course, though they played a decisive role in several engagements. The Brotherhood fiercely opposed the truce that ended it.
In Gaza, the decades after 1967 brought a different kind of work. Between 1967 and 1987 the number of mosques tripled from 200 to 600. The Brotherhood called the years from 1975 to 1987 a phase of "social institution building". It founded associations, gave aid to poor Palestinians through zakat, promoted schools, offered students loans, and leased property through religious endowments. Shaykh Ahmad Yasin created the Islamic Center, al-Mujamma' al-Islami, in 1973, which drew religious organizations together.
In 1987, following the First Intifada, Hamas was established from Brotherhood-affiliated charities and social institutions. During the First Intifada, which ran from 1987 to 1993, it militarized. Its 2007 takeover of the Gaza Strip was the first time a Brotherhood group had ruled a significant territory since the Sudanese coup of 1989. A blockade of Gaza and an economic crisis followed the 2013 fall of the Brotherhood's government in Egypt.
In 1952, a group of nationalist military officers overthrew Egypt's monarchy. The Free Officers had formed a cell within the Brotherhood during the 1948 war against Israel. Their leader, Gamal Abdel Nasser, deposed the first president, Muhammad Neguib, and quickly turned on the Brotherhood. He blamed it for an attempt on his life. The movement was banned again, and thousands of members were imprisoned. Many were tortured and held for years in prisons and concentration camps.
In the 1950s and 1960s, many Brothers sought sanctuary in Saudi Arabia. Others went to Europe. Al-Banna's son-in-law Said Ramadan emerged in the 1950s as a major leader and the movement's unofficial foreign minister. He built a major center around a mosque in Munich, which became "a refuge for the beleaguered group during its decades in the wilderness". In the 1960s he worked with Mahmoud K. Muftić, a Bosnian Muslim exile who had married his cousin. Together they built links between the Brotherhood and anti-communist exile groups in Europe and the Middle East.
The Six-Day War of 1967 changed the climate. The Brotherhood had remained a fringe group in Arab politics until a resounding Arab defeat by Israel. Islamism then replaced popular secular Arab nationalism. Saudi Arabia supported the movement, with which it shared enemies like communism. In the 1970s, after Nasser's death, the new president, Anwar Sadat, invited the Egyptian Brotherhood back.
Under Hosni Mubarak, the Brotherhood became the largest opposition group in Egypt. It built a vast support network through Islamic charities working among poor Egyptians. The former Knesset member Uri Avnery called it religious but pragmatic, and admired for its commitment to social work. In the 2005 parliamentary elections the Brotherhood won 88 seats, or 20 percent of the total, against 14 for the legal opposition. It did so while technically illegal and running its candidates as independents, despite the arrest of hundreds of members. A New York Times journalist said it "posed a democratic political challenge to the regime, not a theological one". Yet in parliament it also pressed Culture Minister Farouk Hosny to ban three novels as blasphemous.
Doubts lingered. In December 2006, Brotherhood students in uniforms staged martial arts drills at a campus demonstration. To Jameel Theyabi, it suggested a return to the era of secret cells. In October 2007 the movement issued a detailed platform. It called for a board of Muslim clerics to oversee the government and limited the presidency to Muslim men. It declared that a woman was unsuited to the office because its duties "conflict with her nature, social and other humanitarian roles". Leaders also disagreed over Egypt's 32-year peace treaty with Israel. A deputy leader said the group would seek its dissolution, while a spokesman said it would be respected as long as "Israel shows real progress on improving the lot of the Palestinians".
On the 30th of April 2011, after Hosni Mubarak fell, the Brotherhood launched the Freedom and Justice Party. It won 235 of the 498 seats in that year's parliamentary elections, far more than any other party. The party rejected the candidacy of women or Copts for Egypt's presidency, but not for cabinet positions. In 2012 its candidate, Mohamed Morsi, defeated Ahmed Shafiq, the last prime minister under Mubarak, with 51.73 percent of the vote. Morsi became Egypt's first democratically elected president.
Opposition arrived fast. In late November 2012, Morsi temporarily granted himself the power to legislate without judicial oversight, saying he needed to protect the nation from the Mubarak-era power structure. He also put a draft constitution to a referendum, which opponents called "an Islamist coup". Concern over prosecutions of journalists, military trials, and detention without judicial review for up to 30 days brought hundreds of thousands of protesters into the streets. Fuel shortages and electricity outages deepened the anger. Morsi's allies said the opposition was trying to destabilize the country, and opponents said he sought to monopolize power.
On the 3rd of July 2013, the military removed Morsi from office and put him under house arrest. Large counter-protests supporting him had begun days earlier. On the 14th of August, the interim government declared a month-long state of emergency, and riot police cleared the pro-Morsi sit-in at Rabaa. The National Council for Human Rights reported more than 600 deaths and some 4,000 injuries, the most casualties in Egypt's modern history. Brotherhood supporters then looted and burned police stations and dozens of churches. A Brotherhood spokesperson condemned the attacks on Christians and blamed military leaders.
The crackdown has been called the worst for the Brotherhood in eight decades. On the 19th of August, the supreme leader, Mohammed Badie, was arrested, which crossed a "red line" even Mubarak had not crossed. On the 23rd of September a court outlawed the group and seized its assets. On the 21st of December, Prime Minister Hazem Al Beblawi declared it a terrorist organisation after a car bomb killed at least 14 people at a police building in Mansoura. The government blamed the Brotherhood, though the source notes no evidence was offered and an unaffiliated Sinai-based group claimed responsibility.
The sentences kept coming. On the 24th of March 2014, an Egyptian court condemned 529 Brotherhood members to death after an attack on a police station. Amnesty International called it the largest single batch of simultaneous death sentences it had seen in recent years anywhere in the world. By May 2014, about 16,000 people had allegedly been arrested, and The Economist cited an independent count above 40,000. On the 2nd of February 2015, another 183 members were sentenced to death. On the 16th of May 2015, Morsi himself was sentenced to death along with 120 others.
How much blame the Brotherhood deserves for its own fall is disputed. Under Mubarak, state media portrayed it as secretive and illegal, and channels such as OnTV spent much of their air time vilifying it. Yet in power it acquiesced to or supported military crackdowns, tried to establish armed groups of supporters, and sought official permission for its members to be armed. A later review found that it had failed to moderate its views or embrace democratic values. The ban did not stay inside Egypt's borders.
In Jordan, the Association of the Muslim Brotherhood was officially registered on the 9th of November 1945, with Abu Qura as its first General Supervisor. For a long time the monarchy exempted it while other movements, such as Hizb ut-Tahrir, were banned. In 1989 its political party, the Islamic Action Front, became the largest group in parliament with 23 of 80 seats. The relationship later soured. In 2015 some 400 members, including top leaders and founding members, defected to form another group. In 2016 police raided and shut the Amman headquarters. On the 23rd of April 2025, the Interior Minister, Mazin Al Farrayeh, announced an immediate ban and the seizure of its assets and offices.
Saudi Arabia shows the sharpest reversal. It helped the Brotherhood financially for over half a century. In 1954, thousands of Egyptian Brothers fleeing Nasser arrived in a kingdom that needed teachers for its newly created public school system. Many settled in education, and the expert Stephane Lacroix said the system was so controlled by the Brotherhood that change would take 20 years, if at all. Ties broke during the Gulf War. In 2002, Interior Minister Prince Nayef called the Brotherhood "the source of all problems in the Islamic world". In March 2014, the kingdom declared it a terrorist organization. A royal decree set prison sentences of three to twenty years for supporting such groups.
In Syria, the Brotherhood won ten seats, or 5.8 percent of the house, in the 1961 parliamentary elections. After the 1963 coup that brought the secular Ba'ath Party to power, it was banned. Membership became a capital offense in 1980, and the military crushed the Hama uprising of 1982. Yet Hamas kept its headquarters in Damascus with government support, which has been cited as proof of how little the movement is centralized. In December 2024 the Ba'ath regime fell, and the succeeding government has been directly linked to the Brotherhood.
The United Arab Emirates saw its Al Islah group form in 1974, with the approval of Sheikh Rashid bin Saeed Al Maktoum. In March 2013, a trial began in Abu Dhabi of 94 people linked to Al Islah for an alleged coup attempt. Fifty-six received prison sentences of three to ten years, eight were sentenced in absentia to 15 years, and 26 were acquitted. On the 7th of March 2014 the government designated the Brotherhood a terrorist group.
Qatar disbanded its Brotherhood branch in 1999, yet it became a patron. Yusuf al-Qaradawi, who fled Egypt for Qatar in 1961 after imprisonment under Nasser, became the group's spiritual leader. He founded the Shariah and Islamic Studies department at the University of Qatar in 1977. For twenty years he hosted a show called Shariah and Life on Al-Jazeera. Before 2013, Qatar had also given Morsi's Egypt about $10 million. In December 2019, Qatar's foreign minister told CNN that Qatar never supported the Brotherhood. Turkey's ruling AKP publicly backed the Brotherhood after Morsi's fall. Recep Tayyip Erdoğan said Turkey "would stand by whoever was elected as a result of legitimate elections."
Across Africa, the record is mixed. In Algeria, Sheikh Mahfoud Nahnah ran for president in 1995 and finished second with 25.38 percent. The Algerian Brotherhood refused to join the violent uprising that followed the 1992 coup. In Libya, the Brotherhood held its first public press conference on the 17th of November 2011. Many expected a win, but it placed a distant second with 10 percent and 17 of 80 party-list seats. In Sudan, Hasan al-Turabi's National Islamic Front organized the 1989 coup against a democratically elected government.
In Europe, the first Brotherhood members arrived in the late 1950s and early 1960s, many of them students. Student groups grew into organizations, and they often structured their mosques as community centres. In 1989 they founded the Federation of Islamic Organizations in Europe, renamed the Council of European Muslims in 2020. Its headquarters is a few blocks from key European Union institutions in Brussels. In France, by 2020 there were 147 mosques and 18 Islamic schools associated with the Brotherhood.
Academic research distinguishes four approaches to understanding the Muslim Brotherhood. The first draws a clear connection to terrorist organizations such as al-Qaeda. It argues that the Brotherhood refrains from violence only for tactical reasons and merely seeks power. Its image is a wolf in sheep's clothing. The second approach sees an unchanging group for which a strict reading of the Quran and the Sunna is essential. It attributes an undemocratic character to the movement and says it strives for an Islamic theocracy in individual countries and ultimately worldwide.
The third approach describes an international conspiracy against the West with a hidden agenda. Its imagery is a "spider in the web", a "Trojan horse" or tentacles, all suggesting a central controlling power. Linked organizations are said to adopt different names to obscure their traces. The fourth approach is the most common among scholars who have studied the Brotherhood. It sees a pragmatic, dynamic and flexible organization that can adapt and accept political rules of the game. Its proponents do not call the Brotherhood liberal-democratic, but they identify real, intensely debated developments inside it.
Governments have their own verdicts. As of 2026, the flagship group or specific chapters are considered terrorist organizations by Argentina, Kenya, Germany, Bahrain, Egypt, Russia, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates and the United States. In January 2026, the French National Assembly adopted a non-binding resolution asking the European Union to assess whether the Brotherhood belongs on its list of terrorist organisations. Officials stressed that it was not an immediate designation.
In March 2026, a motion backed by 76 members of the Dutch House of Representatives called for a ban on the Brotherhood and affiliated organisations. The party CDA argued that such a ban would be legally difficult, because the Brotherhood is not a formally structured organisation in the Netherlands.
Updated
Common questions
Who founded the Muslim Brotherhood and when?
Hassan al-Banna, an Islamic scholar, imam and schoolteacher, founded the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt in March 1928. He started it in Ismailia together with six workers of the Suez Canal Company.
What is the Muslim Brotherhood's slogan and stated aim?
The Muslim Brotherhood's best known slogan is "Islam is the solution". Its self-stated aim is a state ruled by Sharia under a caliphate.
How big did the Muslim Brotherhood grow in its early years?
The Muslim Brotherhood grew from 800 members in 1936 to 200,000 by 1938 and over 2 million by 1948.
Why was the Muslim Brotherhood banned in Egypt?
Egypt banned the Muslim Brotherhood in 1948 after bombings and alleged assassinations, and again under Gamal Abdel Nasser in the 1950s. After Mohamed Morsi was removed on the 3rd of July 2013, a court outlawed the group on the 23rd of September 2013.
What is the relationship between the Muslim Brotherhood and Hamas?
Hamas is an offshoot of the Muslim Brotherhood. It was established in 1987, following the First Intifada, from Brotherhood-affiliated charities and social institutions in Gaza.
Which governments consider the Muslim Brotherhood a terrorist organization?
As of 2026, Argentina, Kenya, Germany, Bahrain, Egypt, Russia, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates and the United States consider the flagship group or specific chapters terrorist organizations.
Who was Mohamed Morsi in the Muslim Brotherhood?
Mohamed Morsi was the Muslim Brotherhood's candidate who won Egypt's 2012 presidential election with 51.73 percent of the vote. He became Egypt's first democratically elected president and was removed by the military on the 3rd of July 2013.
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- 160خالد العبيدي يرد على تهديدات الاخوان المسلمين باغتياله: لن نتهاون في كشف الفاسدين وحياتي ليست أغلى من اي مقاتلKhalid Al-Obeidi — 3 August 2016
- 161NewsProfile: Kurdish Islamist movement13 January 2003
- 162NewsSaudi newspaper slams Muslim Brotherhood as 'Nazis'19 February 2020
- 163BookPolitical Parties in the West Bank under the Jordanian Regime, 1949–1967Amnon Cohen — Cornell University Press — 1982
- 164JournalThe Muslim Brotherhood Movement in the West Bank and GazaMohammed K Shadid — April 1988
- 165BookIslamic Fundamentalism in the West Bank and Gaza: Muslim Brotherhood and Islamic JihadZiad Abu-Amr — Indiana University Press — 22 March 1994
- 166Hamas: A Historical and Political BackgroundZiad Abu-Amr — Summer 1993
- 167NewsThe Muslim Brotherhood18 February 2011
- 168How Israel Helped to Spawn HamasHiggins, Andrew — 24 January 2009
- 169Hamas CharterMideastweb.org
- 170JournalThe Talibanization of Gaza: A Liability for the Muslim BrotherhoodJonathan Schanzer — 19 August 2009
- 171BookThe Muslim Brotherhood in JordanShmuel Bar — Moshe Dayan Center for Middle Eastern and African Studies — 1998
- 172BookJordan: The Muslim Brotherhood and the Kings of Jordan 1945–1993Hanna Freij — 2000
- 173MagazineThe Moderate Muslim BrotherhoodRobert Leiken et al. — 2007
- 174Muslim Brotherhood / JordanTore Kjeilen — Looklex Encyclopedia — 20 September 2000
- 175BookThe Failure of Political IslamOlivier Roy — Harvard University Press — 1994
- 176The Jordanian Brotherhood in the Arab SpringJacob Amis — Hudson Institute
- 177Jordan 2011: Uneasy Lies the HeadAsher Susser — Brandeis University
- 178Defections threaten Jordan's Brotherhood14 January 2016
- 179NewsJordan shuts down Muslim Brotherhood headquarters13 April 2016
- 182NewsBehind Qatar's bet on the Muslim BrotherhoodChrista Case Bryant — 2014-04-18
- 184JournalThe Two Faces of Al JazeeraOren Kessler — 2012-01-01
- 185Why Egypt Hates Al Jazeera19 February 2014
- 186NewsQatar's Support of Islamists Alienates Allies Near and FarDavid D. Kirkpatrick — 2014-09-07
- 187NewsMuslim cleric not allowed into UK2008-02-07
- 188NewsFrance election: Sarkozy vows ban on militant preachers26 March 2012
- 189NewsEgypt crisis: Fall of Morsi challenges Qatar's new emir5 July 2013
- 190NewsFall of Egypt's Mohamed Morsi is blow to Qatari leadershipSimeon Kerr — 2013-07-03
- 192BookThe Future of Political IslamGraham E. Fuller — Palgrave MacMillan — 2003
- 193NewsCharting the Rise of the Muslim Brotherhood3 July 2007
- 194NewsSaudi action puts Muslim Brotherhood in Kuwait on spotElizabeth Dickinson — 10 March 2014
- 195NewsIn Search of Friends Among The Foes U.S. Hopes to Work With Diverse GroupJohn Mintz et al. — 10 September 2004
- 196MagazineSaudi Arabia and the Brotherhood: What the 'New York Times' MissedBob Dreyfuss — 13 July 2012
- 197MagazineNo satisfaction1 February 2014
- 198BookOn Saudi Arabia: Its People, past, Religion, Fault Lines and FutureKaren Elliott House — Knopf — 2012
- 199BookThe War for Muslim Minds: Islam and the WestGilles Kepel — Belknap Press — 2006
- 200The Muslim Brotherhood in Saudi Arabia (comments by Thomas Hegghammer)GlobalMB — 8 July 2008
- 201MagazineIslamist OutlawsWilliam McCants — 17 March 2014
- 202BookThe Paths of the Arab SpringBrian Katulis — World Politics Review — 4 June 2013
- 203NewsSaudi Arabia's Muslim Brotherhood predicamentStéphane Lacroix
- 204BookDreams and Shadows: the Future of the Middle EastRobin Wright — Penguin Press — 2008
- 205Muslim Brotherhood of SyriaTore Kjeilen — Looklex encyclopedia — 20 September 2000
- 206NewsSyria's Muslim Brotherhood is gaining influence over anti-Assad revoltLiz Sly — 12 May 2012
- 207Assad applauds fall of EgyptDavid Horovitz — 11 July 2013
- 208NewsUAE Islamists had military wing, planned Islamic state – papersRaissa Kasolowsky — 20 September 2012
- 209NewsGulf states must tackle Muslim Brotherhood threat: UAEYahoo News — 8 October 2012
- 210NewsAmid challenges, UAE policies engage gradual reformsAnwar Gargash — 26 August 2012
- 211NewsIslah 'does not represent UAE interests'Ola Salem — 5 October 2012
- 212JournalThe UAE, The "Arab Spring" and Different Types of DissentIngo Forstenlechner — Winter 2012
- 213NewsIs the Muslim Brotherhood targeting the UAE?Hussein Ibish — 8 January 2013
- 214NewsBrotherhood 'sought Islamist state in UAE'21 September 2012
- 215UAE coup plot trial begins in Abu DhabiAl Jazeera
- 216NewsUAE court jails scores of Emiratis in coup plot trial: TVYara Bayoumy — 2 July 2013
- 217MagazineYemen's President Saleh Speaks: The Interview Transcript29 September 2011
- 218Why the United States Should Be as Circumspect as the British about the Muslim BrotherhoodLorenzo Vidino — 12 February 2017
- 219BookHistorical Dictionary of Islamic FundamentalismMathieu Guidère — Rowman & Littlefield — 20 September 2017
- 220NewsMuslim Brotherhood goes public with Libya summit17 November 2011
- 221NewsMuslim Brotherhood to Contest Libyan Elections as Independent Party24 December 2011
- 222Between ISIS and a Failed State: The Saga of Libyan Islamists (Working Paper)Omar Ashour — Brookings Institution — August 2015
- 223National Congress party results18 July 2012
- 224NewsAbushagur elected as Prime MinisterAshraf Abdul Wahab et al. — 12 September 2012
- 225NewsLibyan Prime Minister Nominates His Government Line-Up30 October 2012
- 226NewsNational Congress elects two vice speakers10 August 2012
- 227NewsFirst Islamist party emerges in Libya11 January 2012
- 228BookHistorical dictionary of Islamic FundamentalismMathieu Guidere — Rowman & Littlefield — 2017
- 229NewsSallabi and Qaradawi: Two sides of the same terrorism coinAsmaa al-Batakoshi — 23 October 2019
- 232Libya's Ansar al-Sharia announces dissolutionAl Jazeera
- 235NewsLibya's Islamists: Who They Are – And What They WantWilson Center — 2017-08-08
- 236Mauritania's IslamistsAlex Thurston — Carnegie Middle East Center
- 237Threat of US designation sparks fears in ruling PJD29 May 2019
- 238Headaches for Benkirane24 January 2014
- 239Islamist and Secular Forces in MoroccoMohammed Masbah — November 2014
- 240Fin de parcours pour les Frères musulmans au Maghreb ?Abed Charef — 16 September 2021
- 241International Religious Freedom Report 2004. SomaliaState.gov — 1 January 2004
- 242BookSudan, South Sudan, and Darfur: What Everyone Needs to KnowAndrew S. Natsios — Oxford University Press — 2012
- 243BookJihad: The Trail of Political IslamGilles Kepel — Belknap Press of Harvard University Press — 2002
- 245NewsOmar al-Bashir: How Sudan's military strongmen stayed in power12 April 2019
- 246The Muslim Brotherhood's Pan-European StructureL. Vidino et al. — Dokumentationsstelle Politischer Islam — February 2021
- 250BookVerfassungsschutzbericht 2012Bayerischen Landesamts für Verfassungsschutz — Bayerisches Staatsministerium des Innern — 2013
- 252CDA: Moslimbroederschap geen formele organisatie, verbod lastigEW Magazine — 2026
- 256BookMuslim Brotherhood Review: Main FindingsJ Jenkins et al. — Government of UK — 2015
- 258NewsUAE told UK: crack down on Muslim Brotherhood or lose arms dealsRandeep Ramesh — 2015-11-06
- 259The rise and rise of new gangs28 March 2009
- 260Muslim Brotherhood active in Australia16 August 2013
- 261JournalIndonesian Democracy's Enemy WithinSadanand Dhume — 1 December 2005
- 262BookJoining the Caravan? The Middle East, Islamism, and IndonesiaAnthony Bubalo et al. — Lowy Institute for International Policy — 2005
- 263BookUmat Islam Menyongsong Abad ke-21Yusuf Qaradhawi — Era Intermedia, Solo — 2001
- 264BookIslam, Politics and Youth in Malaysia: The Pop-Islamist Reinvention of PASDominik M. Müller — Routledge — 2014
- 265NewsMuslim Brotherhood influence not a problem in MalaysiaAnisah Shukry — 28 January 2016
- 266UMNO-PAS meterai Piagam Muafakat Nasional2019-09-14
- 267PAS, UMNO, Bersatu, Amanah And 10 PKR MPs Said To Be Forming A New Coalition GovtSadho Ram — 2020-02-23
- 268NewsThe rising force in Malaysia's oppositionAmy Chew — Al Jazeera — 11 February 2013
- 269PAS tegaskan pendirian bersama Ikhwanul MusliminPAS President — 2 April 2014
- 270Muslim Brotherhood Cell Active in NW ChristchurchJohn Stringer — Scoop — 29 September 2016
- 272q:Muslim Brotherhood
- 274Ikhwan in AmericaZeid al-Noman
- 275NewsThe Man Behind the Anti-Shariah MovementAndrea Elliott — 30 July 2011
- 277S.2230 – Muslim Brotherhood Terrorist Designation Act of 2015U.S. Library of Congress — 3 November 2015
- 278NewsCruz bill would designate Muslim Brotherhood as terrorist groupJulian Hattem — 4 November 2015
- 280NewsShould the U.S. Designate the Muslim Brotherhood as a Terrorist Group?Alexander Lederman — 8 March 2016
- 281Is the Muslim Brotherhood a terrorist organization?10 March 2017
- 282NewsTrump administration debates designating Muslim Brotherhood as terrorist group29 January 2017
- 283NewsPetition calls for White House to declare Muslim Brotherhood terrorist groupPerry Chiaramonte — Fox News Channel — 4 August 2013
- 284NewsWhite House Weighs Terrorist Designation for Muslim BrotherhoodPeter Baker — 7 February 2017
- 285NewsTrump weighs labeling Muslim Brotherhood a terrorist group30 April 2019
- 286NewsReport: how the Muslim Brotherhood seeks to undermine Western democraciesItamar Eichner — 2025-11-19
- 288NewsSalafism: Politics and the puritanical25 July 2015
- 289BookPublic Islam and the Common GoodPaulo G. Pinto — Brill Publishers — 2004
- 290BookFollowing Muhammad: Rethinking Islam in the Contemporary WorldCarl W. Ernst — University of North Carolina Press — 2003
- 291BookA Concise History of the ArabsJohn McHugo — The New Press — 2013
- 292BookMakers of the Muslim World: Hassan al BannaGudrun Krämer — Oneworld Publications — 2010
- 293BookThe Islamic Enlightenment: The Struggle Between Faith and Reason- 1798 to Modern TimesChristopher De Bellaigue — Liveright Publishing — 2017
- 294Muslim Brotherhood Debates Its Position on the Shi'aL. Azuri — 27 April 2009
- 295The Brotherhood and the Shiite QuestionIsrael Elad-Altman — Hudson Institute
- 296BookRadical Islam and the Revival of Medieval TheologyDaniel Law — Cambridge University Press — 2012
- 297BookIslam in the WorldMalise Ruthven — Penguin — 1984
- 298BookIslamic FundamentalismLawrence Davidson — Greenwood Press — 1998
- 299JournalAn Islamic Perspective on Organizational MotivationAbdelrahman Ahmed Abdelrahman — 1995
- 300JournalAdministrative Efficiency and Effectiveness: An Islamic PerspectiveAbdelrahman Ahmed Abdelrahman — Fall 1996
- 301BookFive Tracts of Hasan Al-BannaBerkeley — 1978
- 302The Salafist MovementFrontline (PBS)
- 303JournalThe Inclusive Dynamics of Islamic Universalism: From the Vantage Point of Sayyid Qutb's Critical PhilosophyAndrea Mura — 2014
- 304Muslim Brotherhood vs Al Qaedaikhwanweb.com — 19 January 2010
- 306interview w/Dr. Mohamed El-Sayed HabibIkhwan Web
- 307Profile: Egypt's Muslim BrotherhoodBBC — 25 December 2013
- 308Does the Muslim Brotherhood still have a role to play in Egypt's revolutionary politics?Khalil Yusuf — 27 January 2014
- 309BookWest Asia at War: Repression, Resistance and Great Power GamesTalmiz Ahmad — HarperCollins — 2022
- 310JournalThe Muslim Brotherhood Evolution: An OverviewEhrenfeld, Rachel — 2011
- 311BookThe Muslim Brotherhood: The Organization and Policies of a Global Islamist MovementRubin, Barry — Springer — 2010
- 312MagazineThe Unbreakable Muslim Brotherhood: Grim Prospects for a Liberal EgyptEric Trager — September–October 2011
- 313Understanding the Muslim BrotherhoodBarry Rubin — Foreign Policy Research Institute — July 2012
- 314BookShaikh Hassan al Banna and al Ikhwan al MuslimunMaryam Jameelah — Mohammad Ysuf Khan — 1980
- 315BookThe West and Islam: Western Liberal Democracy Versus the System of ShuraMishal Fahm Sulami — Psychology Press — 2003
- 316BookGlobal Institutions of Religion: Ancient Movers, Modern ShakersKatherine Marshall — Routledge — 2013
- 317MagazineThink Again: Al QaedaSeth G. Jones — 2012
- 318Muslim Brotherhood subversion in Gulf StatesThe Jerusalem Post — 3 April 2013
- 319MagazineThe Truth about the Muslim BrotherhoodRachel Ehrenfeld et al. — 16 June 2006
- 321The Brotherhood and America Part IIILufti, Manal — 14 March 2007
- 322Egypt's parliamentary hypocrisySarah Mousa — Al Jazeera
- 323JournalThe Muslim Brotherhood and Democratic Transition in EgyptCarrie Wickham — 2011
- 324BookPassion for Islam: Shaping the Modern Middle East: the Egyptian ExperienceCaryle Murphy — Simon & Schuster — 2002
- 325The Muslim Brotherhood uncoveredJack Shenker et al. — 8 February 2011
- 326Does the Muslim Brotherhood Have Ties to TerrorismMary Crane — Council on Foreign Relations
- 327NewsEgypt unrest: What if Mubarak goes?31 January 2011
- 333NewsEgypt's Bumbling BrotherhoodScott Atran — 2 February 2011
- 334Egyptians Want Shariah, End of Israel Treaty, Pew Poll ShowsBloomberg — 26 April 2011
- 335Arab Women As Likely As Men To Support Islamic Law In Middle East After Arab Spring, Says SurveyHuffington Post — 25 June 2012
- 336NewsEgypt's Muslim Brotherhood Welcomes Idea of U.S. Contacts30 June 2011
- 337NewsMuslim Brotherhood Says Qatar Ousted Its Members13 September 2014
- 341NewsCharges brought against 70 suspected Muslim Brotherhood members in Tajikistan21 January 2020
- 345NewsEgypt designates Muslim Brotherhood as terrorist groupShadia Nasralla — 25 December 2013
- 346NewsEgypt's interim Cabinet officially labels Muslim Brotherhood a terrorist groupSalma Abdelaziz et al. — CNN — 25 December 2013
- 347Saudi Arabia declares MB a terrorist groupStaff Writer et al. — Al Arabiya News — 7 March 2014
- 349Bahrain FM reiterates stance on Muslim BrotherhoodAnadolu Agency — 21 March 2014
- 350Libyan parl't votes to ban Muslim Brotherhood, designates it 'terrorist group'Walaa Ali — 14 May 2019
- 352NewsU.S. Weighs Terror Label on Iran Revolutionary Guard, Muslim BrotherhoodFelicia Schwartz et al. — 8 February 2017
- 362مساعي إدراج الإخوان على قوائم الإرهاب الأمريكية.. السياقات والدلالاتahmed ahmed — 2025-12-08
- 363U.S. designates three Muslim Brotherhood chapters as global terrorists13 January 2026
- 367NewsUpdate from Edward Wongnull — 2026-03-09
- 368Russia's Reaction on the Egypt CrisisIndian Council of World Affairs — 29 October 2013
- 369NewsWhat next for Egypt and Russia?Hicham Mourad — 23 April 2013
- 370NewsAga Khan: 'Without a doubt, I am seriously worried' about the worldJohn Stackhouse — The Globe and Mail — 1 March 2014
- 371NewsThe Trump Administration's Islamophobic Holy GrailLawrence Pintak — 22 February 2017
- 372NewsTrump's plan to declare the Muslim Brotherhood a terror group is about going after American MuslimsSarah Harvard — 12 February 2017
- 373NewsAll of Islam Isn't the Enemy9 February 2017
- 374NewsMuslim Brotherhood Terror Designation Will Lead To 'Witch-Hunt,' Rights Groups SayChristopher Mathias — 24 February 2017
- 375US: Don't Target Muslim BrotherhoodKenneth Roth — Human Rights Watch — 8 February 2017
- 376NewsI Am a Member of the Muslim Brotherhood, Not a TerroristGehad El-Haddad — 22 February 2017
- 377Black LabelNathan Brown et al. — 25 January 2017
- 378NewsThe U.S. Should Be Wary About Overplaying Its HandEric Trager — 9 February 2017
- 379NewsA terrorism label that would hurt more than helpEditorial Board — 9 February 2017
- 380NewsCalling the Muslim Brotherhood a terrorist group would hurt all American MuslimsArjun Singh Sethi — 8 February 2017
- 381NewsWhy listing the Muslim Brotherhood as a terror group is a bad ideaIshaan Tharoor — 10 February 2017
- 382NewsCIA Memo: Designating Muslim Brotherhood Could 'Fuel Extremism'Blake Hounshell et al. — 8 February 2017
- 383NewsThe Muslim Brotherhood and the Question of TerrorismShadi Hamid — 12 February 2017
- 386The Muslim Brotherhood Is the Root of the Qatar CrisisEric Trager — The Atlantic — 2 July 2017
- 387BookAnswering the Call. Popular Islamic Activism in Sadat's EgyptAbdullah al-Arian — Oxford University — 2014
- 388BookDevil's Game: How the United States Helped Unleash Fundamentalist IslamRobert Dreyfuss — Owl Books — 2006
- 389BookThe Symbolic Scenarios of Islamism: A Study in Islamic Political ThoughtAndrea Mura — Routledge — 2015