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Gaius Marius: the story on HearLore | HearLore
Gaius Marius
Gaius Marius was born in Cereatae, a small village near the town of Arpinum in south-east Latium. The town had been conquered by the Romans in the late 4th century BC and was initially given Roman citizenship without voting rights. Only in 188 BC, thirty years before his birth, did the town receive full citizenship. Plutarch claims that Marius's father was a labourer, but this is almost certainly false since Marius had connections with the nobility in Rome. He ran for local office in Arpinum and had marriage relations with the local nobility in Arpinum. These factors indicate he was born into a locally important family of equestrian status. His family's resources were definitely large enough to support not just one member of the family in Roman politics, but two: Marius's younger brother, Marcus Marius, also entered Roman public life.
In 134 BC, Marius joined the personal legion of Scipio Aemilianus as an officer for the expedition to Numantia. While serving with the army at Numantia, his military aptitude brought him to the attention of Scipio Aemilianus. According to Plutarch, during a conversation after dinner, when the conversation turned to generals and someone asked Scipio Aemilianus where the Roman people would find a worthy successor to him, the younger Scipio gently tapped on Marius's shoulder, saying "Perhaps this is the man". It would seem that even at this early stage of his military career, Marius had ambitions for a political career in Rome. He was elected on the basis of his accomplishments, even though he was not known by sight to the electors, as one of the twenty-four special military tribunes.
Rise To Consulship
Marius attained his first consulship in 107 BC and became the commander of Roman forces in Numidia, where he brought an end to the Jugurthine War. By 105 BC Rome faced an invasion by the Cimbri and Teutones, and the comitia centuriata elected Marius consul for a second time to face this new threat. Marius was consul every year from 104 to 100 BC, and he defeated the Teutones at Aquae Sextiae and the Cimbri at Vercellae.
During the Battle of the Muthul, Marius's actions probably saved the army of Metellus from annihilation. Jugurtha had cut the Romans off from the River Muthul where they wanted to refill their water reserves. The Romans had to fight Jugurtha in the desert where the Numidian light cavalry had an advantage. The Numidian cavalry scattered the Romans into small detachments and soon had control of the battlefield. Each group of Romans was fighting for survival independently. At this point Marius re-organized a few detachments and led a column of 2,000 men through the Numidians to link up with Metellus. Together they led their men against the Numidian infantry who occupied a hill. After gaining control of the hill Marius and Metellus led their men against the rear of the Numidian cavalry. The Romans gained the initiative and the Numidians had no choice but to withdraw.
Where was Gaius Marius born and what was his family status?
Gaius Marius was born in Cereatae, a small village near the town of Arpinum in south-east Latium. He was born into a locally important family of equestrian status with resources large enough to support two members of the family in Roman politics.
When did Gaius Marius attain his first consulship and end the Jugurthine War?
Marius attained his first consulship in 107 BC and became the commander of Roman forces in Numidia where he brought an end to the Jugurthine War. He subsequently served as consul every year from 104 BC to 100 BC while defeating the Teutones at Aquae Sextiae and the Cimbri at Vercellae.
What military reforms are attributed to Gaius Marius during his consulships between 107 BC and 100 BC?
Scholarship starting from the 1840s attributes broad reforms to Gaius Marius including the recruitment of volunteers from the poorest census class known as proletarii for the war against Jugurtha in 107 BC. Other claimed reforms include the abolition of citizen cavalry and light infantry, a redesign of the pilum, a standardized eagle standard, and the substitution of the cohort for the maniple.
How did Gaius Marius die and when was this event recorded?
Gaius Marius died within a fortnight of assuming the consulship for the seventh time after participating in a purge of opponents following the civil war of 87 BC. His death occurred shortly after he returned from exile in Africa to Etruria with an army raised there to place himself under Cinna's command.
Why is Gaius Marius considered responsible for the beginning of the Roman revolution?
Gaius Marius is considered responsible for the beginning of the Roman revolution because his unquenchable ambitio overcame judgment and led to disastrous civil war in 87 BC. His use of the Assemblies to remove Metellus from command in Numidia spelled an end to collective governance in foreign affairs and challenged traditional republican culture based on short terms of office holding.
In 109 BC a migrating Germanic tribe called the Cimbri appeared in Gaul and routed the Roman army there under Marcus Junius Silanus. This defeat reduced Roman prestige and resulted in unrest among the Celtic tribes recently conquered by the Romans in southern Gaul. In 107 the consul Lucius Cassius Longinus was completely defeated by the Tigurini, and the senior surviving officer (one Gaius Popillius, son of the consul of 132) had saved what was left only by surrendering half the baggage and suffering the humiliation of having his army "pass under the yoke".
The Cimbri and another tribe called the Teutones appeared on the Rhône, and while Caepio was on the west bank he refused to come to the aid of Mallius on the east. The Senate was unable to induce Caepio to cooperate with Mallius, which proved both generals' undoing. At the Battle of Arausio (modern Orange), the Cimbri overran Caepio's legions with massively overwhelming numbers. Caepio's routed men crashed into Mallius's troops, which led to both armies being pinned against the Rhône and annihilated by the numerically dominant Cimbrian warriors. News of this defeat reached Rome just shortly after Marius completed the campaign against Jugurtha successfully.
The Marian Reforms Debate
Marius has, in modern scholarship starting from the 1840s in Germany, repeatedly been attributed with broad reforms to the military during his consulships between 107 and 100 BC. The standard narrative is that after a series of manpower shortages, Marius received a dispensation to recruit volunteers from the poorest census class, the proletarii, for the war against Jugurtha in 107 BC. There is, however, very little evidence that Italy's population fell during the second century, that any major reforms to the Roman army occurred in the second century, or that Marius was responsible.
Other reforms attributed to Marius include the abolition of the citizen cavalry and light infantry, a redesign of the pilum, a standardized eagle standard for all legions, and the substitution of the cohort for the maniple. There is little evidence for the abolition of the citizen cavalry and light infantry by the first century BC, as they are still attested in evidence. If Marius redesigned the pilum, archaeological finds indicate his design was soon discarded. Literary evidence indicates that eagle standards continued to co-exist through the late republic with other traditional animal standards including the ox and wolf. Lastly, there is no ancient evidence that Marius introduced the cohort; Sallust's narrative gives the last attestation of the maniple in 109 BC under Metellus Numidicus' command.
Conflict With Sulla
During the Social War, one of Marius's clients and friends, Manius Aquillius, had apparently encouraged the kingdoms of Nicomedia and Bithynia to invade Pontus. In response King Mithridates of Pontus invaded both kingdoms as well as the Roman holdings in Asia (in present-day western Turkey). Defeating the meagre forces at Aquillius's disposal, Mithridates marched across the Bosphorus and Aquillius retreated to Lesbos.
After news of Mithridates' actions reached Rome, Marius may have considered a seventh term as consul. A tribune, Publius Sulpicius Rufus, was also working on proposals to distribute the new Italian citizens into the thirty-five voting tribes. Marius was likely the one pushing for this most, while also positioning himself for a seventh consulship and , when bundled with Sulpicius's other voting reforms , a long-lasting political base. Sulpicius's proposals raised a furore in the forum, leading to a riot in which the consul , Sulla , was forced to shelter in Marius's house, where a compromise was reached allowing the voting bill to pass through and for Sulla to prepare to go east. After Sulla left Rome to prepare for his army in Nola to depart for the east, Sulpicius had his measures passed into law, and tacked on a rider which unprecedentedly appointed Marius , now a private citizen lacking any office in the Republic , to the command in Pontus.
Seventh Consulship And Death
While Sulla was on campaign in Greece, fighting broke out between the conservative supporters of Sulla, led by Octavius, and the popular supporters of Cinna over voting rights for the Italians. When Cinna was forced to flee the city by Octavius's gangs, he was able to rally significant Italian support: some 10 legions including the Samnites. Marius along with his son then returned from exile in Africa to Etruria with an army he had raised there, and they placed themselves under Cinna's command to oust Octavius.
They entered Rome and started to purge a number of their opponents, including Octavius. Their heads were exhibited in the Forum. Fourteen of the victims, including six former consuls, were noteworthy individuals: Lucius Licinius Crassus (older brother of the triumvir), Gaius Atilius Serranus, Marcus Antonius Orator, Lucius Julius Caesar, his brother Caesar Strabo, Quintus Mucius Scaevola the Augur, Publius Cornelius Lentulus, Gaius Nemotorius, Gaius Baebius and Octavius Ruso. A number of those targeted by the purge were not immediately killed: show trials were set up before the victims committed suicide. Within a fortnight of assuming the consulship for the seventh time, Marius was dead.
Legacy And Historical Impact
Marius was an extremely successful Roman general and politician. In ancient sources, he has been repeatedly characterised as having unending ambition and opportunism. Plutarch says of him: "if Marius could have been persuaded to sacrifice to the Greek Muses and Graces, he would not have put the ugliest possible crown upon a most illustrious career in field and forum, nor have been driven by the blasts of passion, ill-timed ambition, and insatiable greed upon the shore of a most cruel and savage old age".
However, that Marius died "so hated by contemporaries is really rather unremarkable, because to his unrealistic, even senile, dreams of further triumphs may be laid the prime cause for the disastrous civil war of 87 [BC]... His unquenchable ambitio overcame an unusually astute sense of judgement; the result, the beginning of the Roman revolution". Broadly, "traditional republican culture had been based on the principles of equality between colleagues in office and short terms of office holding... the inherited republic could not survive Marius and his ambitions". The senate generally used sortition to choose generals for command posts, removing the conflict of interest between consuls. Marius's use of the Assemblies to remove Metellus from command in Numidia spelled an end to collective governance in foreign affairs.