Marcus Junius Brutus

• 1. Lineage And Early Life

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  Marcus Junius Brutus was born in late 85 BC into the illustrious plebeian gens Junia. His father, also named Marcus Junius Brutus, served as tribune of the plebs in 83 BC before being targeted by Sulla during his proscription. The elder Brutus later died fighting against Pompey in 77 BC while serving as a legate in the rebellion of Marcus Aemilius Lepidus. This violent end left the young son without political standing or family protection.

  Around 59 BC, restrictions on his career were lifted through posthumous adoption by Quintus Servilius Caepio. He legally became Quintus Servilius Caepio Brutus, though he rarely used this full name in public life. Ancient sources suggest Julius Caesar might have been his biological father since Servilia, Brutus's mother, was Caesar's mistress. Modern scholars largely reject this theory due to chronological improbability given Caesar was only fifteen years old when Brutus was born.

  Brutus began his public service in 58 BC as an assistant to Cato during Cato's governorship of Cyprus. Plutarch claims Brutus helped convert royal treasure into usable money for the province administration. However, some historians argue this administrative role has been exaggerated in historical accounts.

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• 2. Monetary Propaganda Campaigns

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  In 54 BC, Brutus served as triumvir monetalis alongside Quintus Pompeius Rufus. These three men annually produced coins for Rome and often commemorated their ancestors on currency. Pompeius Rufus placed portraits of his grandfathers Sulla and Pompeius Rufus on his denarii while Brutus chose a different path.

  Brutus designed a denarius featuring paternal ancestor Lucius Junius Brutus who expelled Roman kings in 509 BC. The reverse side showed maternal ancestor Gaius Servilius Ahala who killed Spurius Maelius. Both figures were recognized defenders of liberty in late Republican tradition. A second coin type depicted Libertas goddess alongside Lucius Brutus with lictors present.

  These monetary designs appeared in circulation during the 50s BC when political tensions rose over Pompey's ambitions. Cicero mentioned these coins as early as 59 BC showing Brutus already admired tyrannicides from the early republic. The propaganda message against tyranny participated in broader political debates about Pompey's potential dictatorship. Other moneyers minted coins supporting or opposing Pompey during this same period.

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• 3. Civil War Allegiances

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  When Caesar's Civil War broke out in January 49 BC, Brutus faced a choice between Pompey and Caesar. Pompey fled the city before Caesar's army arrived in March. Brutus decided to support his father's killer despite their previous relationship. This decision likely reflected loyalty to allies like Appius Claudius Cato and Cicero who joined Pompey.

  He did not immediately join Pompey but traveled to Cilicia as legate for Publius Sestius first. He eventually reached Pompey in winter 49 or spring 48 BC. Plutarch states Caesar ordered officers to take Brutus prisoner if he surrendered voluntarily while leaving him alone if he fought against capture.

  After Pompey's defeat at Pharsalus on the 9th of August 48 BC, Brutus fled through marshland to Larissa. He wrote to Caesar who welcomed him graciously into camp. Plutarch implies Brutus told Caesar of Pompey's withdrawal plans to Egypt though historians doubt this since Brutus was absent when that decision occurred. Caesar later appointed Brutus governor of Cisalpine Gaul after returning to Rome in December 47 BC.

• 4. The Ides Of March Conspiracy

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  By autumn 45 BC public opinion of Caesar began souring with graffiti glorifying Lucius Junius Brutus appearing in Rome's courts. These messages criticized Caesar's kingly ambitions while shaming Marcus Junius Brutus for failing to live up to his ancestor's reputation. Modern historians believe popular opinion had turned against Caesar by early 44 BC regardless of whether elites created the graffiti.

  Caesar deposed two plebeian tribunes in late January 44 BC for removing crowns from statues. In February 44 BC he thrice rejected a crown from Marcus Antonius before accepting dictator perpetuo title. Cicero wrote letters asking Brutus to reconsider his association with Caesar while Cassius Dio claims Porcia spurred her husband's conspiracy.

  Brutus and Cassius recruited conspirators including Gaius Trebonius Publius Servilius Casca and Servius Sulpicius Galba starting in late February 44 BC. They debated killing Antony but Brutus forcefully rejected the idea believing Antony could be turned to their cause. The group settled on attacking during a senate meeting on the Ides of March which carried symbolic importance since consuls traditionally assumed office that day until mid-2nd century BC.

  Trebonius detained Antony outside the senate house while Caesar was stabbed to death almost immediately. Nicolaus of Damascus reported eighty conspirators while Appian listed only fifteen. Wounds numbered between twenty-three and thirty-five according to various ancient accounts. Plutarch reports Caesar yielded after seeing Brutus participate while Dio says Caesar shouted kai su teknon meaning You too child in Greek.

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• 5. Post-Assassination Political Settlement

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  Immediately after Caesar's death senators fled the chaos without attempting to aid him or move his body. Cicero reported Caesar fell at Pompey's statue foot while his body remained there until nightfall when it was carried home to Calpurnia. The conspirators traveled to Capitoline Hill where Marcus Aemilius Lepidus moved troops from Tiber Island into the city surrounding the forum.

  Brutus spoke before people in a contio though the speech text is lost. Dio claims liberatores promoted democracy and liberty telling crowds not to expect harm while Appian suggests they merely congratulated each other. Public support proved tepid despite subsequent speeches supporting tyrannicide. Publius Cornelius Dolabella decided to assume consulship illegally on the 18th of March expressing support for Brutus and Cassius before joining them on Capitoline Hill.

  Cicero urged calling senate meeting but Brutus sent delegation to Caesarians asking negotiated settlement instead. This may reflect family connections since Lepidus married one of Brutus's sisters or belief Antony could be won over. Caesarians delayed moving troops gathering weapons preparing possible conflict. After Caesar's funeral on the 20th of March Antony gave rousing speech energizing opposition against tyrannicides.

  Crowd reportedly set senate house fire starting witch-hunt though Livy may have added these embellishments. Assassins stayed Rome several weeks after funeral until April 44 BC indicating some population support existed. A person claiming descent from Gaius Marius planned ambush against Brutus and Cassius but was executed by being thrown from Tarpeian Rock mid- or late April.

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• 6. Eastern Campaigns And Philippi

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  Senate assigned Brutus to Crete in early August 43 BC while Cassius received Cyrene both small provinces with few troops. Later that month Brutus left Italy traveling east where he gained acclaim among younger Romans educated in Athens. He recruited supporters discussing province transfer with Macedonia governor while Antony allocated it to his brother Gaius.

  Brutus entered Macedonia with army in January 43 BC capturing Antony's brother Gaius. Political situation turned against Antony as Cicero delivered Phillipics speeches. Over following months Brutus built strength in Greece while senate confirmed commands for Brutus and Cassius in Macedonia and Syria respectively after Mutina battle killed both consuls Hirtius and Pansa.

  Dolabella switched sides killing Trebonius in Syria raising army against Cassius. Brutus moved to Syria May 43 writing letters criticizing Cicero supporting Octavian against Antony. Lepidus joined Antony against Cicero October forcing Brutus to ask Cicero protect family members. Porcia died next month complicating political landscape further.

  Octavian marched on Rome June through August 19 becoming consul while passing lex Pedia making dictator murder retroactively illegal convicting Brutus absentia. Caesarians settled differences by November 27 forming Second Triumvirate instituting brutal proscriptions claiming many lives including Cicero. News reached Brutus in east prompting march across Hellespont into Macedonia conquering cities in Thrace.

  Meeting Cassius Smyrna January 42 BC led campaign through southern Asia Minor sacking cities aiding enemies. Brutus depicted negatively by Appian marching into Xanthus enslaving populations while Plutarch shows regret with tears over violence done. Campaign continued less sacking more coerced payments ending when both generals reconvened Sardis Marching into Thrace August 42 BC.

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• 7. Philippi And Final Defeat

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  Caesarian forces entered Greece evading naval patrols of Sextus Pompey and Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus. Liberatores positioned west Neapolis maintaining communication lines back to eastern supplies. Octavian and Antony faced harassment from superior republican fleets adopting attrition strategy.

  Antony commanded 95,000 infantry plus 13,000 horsemen while Brutus and Cassius held 85,000 infantry and 20,000 cavalry. Liberatores paid soldiers advance 1,500 denarii per man offering bonuses for officers. Antony built causeway under darkness covering swamps anchoring republican left flank while Cassius countered building wall cutting off Antony defending own flank.

  First battle started unclearly though Appian says Antony attacked Cassius while Plutarch reports simultaneous joining. Brutus defeated Octavian's troops on right flank sacking camp forcing young Caesar withdraw. Cassius fared poorly against Antony withdrawing hill where either hearing Brutus victory killing himself out shame or legates failing relay news causing belief Brutus defeated leading suicide.

  Brutus assumed command promising substantial cash reward allowing plundering Thessalonica Sparta after victory since cities supported triumvirs. Fearful defections Antony cutting supply lines joined battle attempting continue starving enemy strategy. Second battle head-to-head struggle reporting few tactical maneuvers heavy casualties especially among eminent republican families.

  After defeat fled hills with four legations knowing capture inevitable taking life falling sword. Last words according to Plutarch stated By all means must we fly but hands not feet. He also uttered Euripides Medea verse O Zeus do not forget who caused woes possibly referring Antony or Octavian.

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• 8. Historical Legacy And Cultural Memory

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  Ancient world viewed Brutus killing Caesar virtuous reasons rather than envy hatred. Plutarch mentions enemies respected him recounting Antony saying Brutus only man slaying Caesar driven by splendor nobility deed while others conspired hating envying him. Cicero De Officiis expressed conspirators act moral duty though main charge remained ingratitude taking Caesar goodwill then killing him.

  Augustan age historians wrote respectfully about Brutus Cassius Forum Augustus statues omitting Cato Cicero Brutus Cassius despite tolerating positive views allegedly from Augustus himself. Tiberius reign atmosphere became intolerant historian Cremutius Cordus charged treason writing history friendly Brutus Cassius Valerius Maximus believed memory suffered irreversible curses under imperial regime support.

  Dante Alighieri Inferno placed Brutus lowest circle Hell personally tortured Satan alongside Cassius Judas Iscariot resisting God historical design developing Roman Empire fusion Christianity Christianized monarchies. Renaissance writers viewed assassination symbolizing ancient republican ideology Lorenzino de' Medici called Florentine Brutus killed cousin Duke Alessandro freeing Florence 1537 French pamphlet Vindiciae contra tyrannos published 1579 pseudonym Stephanus Junius Brutus Algernon Sidney executed 1683 plotting Charles II.

  Modern period maintained republicanism symbolism Anti-Federalist Papers written 1787 pseudonym Brutus Conyers Middleton Edward Gibbon late 18th century negative views Middleton criticized vacillations correspondence Cicero betraying philosophical consistency Gibbon conceived actions results destruction republic civil war death future tyranny Ronald Syme pointed judging failure simply judging results.

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