Early Muslim conquests

• 1. Pre-Islamic Arabia And Geopolitics

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  In 602, the Persian Empire deposed the Lakhmid kingdom, a client state covering parts of southern Iraq and northern Saudi Arabia. This action left Persia exposed and overextended along its southern frontier. Arabian society was divided along tribal lines between southern and northern associations. Both Byzantine and Sasanian empires competed for influence by sponsoring these clients. The Yemeni were skilled sailors who traveled up the Red Sea to Egypt and across the Indian Ocean to India. Inland valleys had been cultivated by irrigation systems until an earthquake destroyed the Marib Dam around 450 AD. Frankincense and myrrh once held great value in Mediterranean religious ceremonies. Conversion of the Mediterranean world to Christianity significantly reduced demand for these commodities. A major economic slump followed in southern Arabia. This created an impression that Arabia was backward despite its history as a wealthy trading region.

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• 2. Byzantine Sasanian Exhaustion

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  The prolonged Byzantine, Sasanian wars of the sixth and seventh centuries left both empires exhausted. Recurring outbreaks of bubonic plague known as the Plague of Justinian further weakened their populations. Emperor Heraclius regained all lost territories and restored the True Cross to Jerusalem in 629. The war against Zoroastrian Persia had been portrayed as a holy war defending Christian faith. Heraclius used splinters of wood from the True Cross to inspire fighting zeal among his troops. Neither empire received any chance to recover before being overrun by Arab advances. James Howard-Johnston described this sudden expansion as resembling a human tsunami. George Liska noted that the unnecessarily prolonged conflict opened the way for Islam. By the mid-630s, the united Arabian Peninsula achieved its greatest power relative to Near Eastern forces. The thirty-year war between Byzantines and Persians depleted manpower resources and morale. The only other principal military force on the peninsula, the Himyarite Kingdom, dissolved by the middle of the sixth century due to combined factors.

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• 3. Military Tactics And Armies

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  In Arabia swords from India were greatly esteemed as made of the finest steel. These became favorite weapons of the Mujahideen during early campaigns. Swords and spears served as major weapons while armor was either mail or leather. Bedouin tribes favored archery though they usually fought on foot instead of horseback. Arabs typically placed archers on both flanks when engaging defensive battles. By the Umayyad period the caliphate maintained a standing army including elite Ahl al-Sham raised from Arabs settling in Syria. Regional armies called jund were stationed in provinces and paid monthly by the War Ministry. Byzantine infantry continued recruitment within the empire but much cavalry came from martial peoples in Balkans or Asia Minor. Germanic mercenaries also formed part of Byzantine forces in Syria. Most troops there were indigenae who were actually Arabs at the time of conquest. Persian society remained rigidly divided into castes with nobility claiming Aryan descent. Azatan aristocracy provided cavalry while paighan infantry came from peasantry. Greater Persian nobility owned slave soldiers based on existing examples. Much of the Persian army consisted of tribal mercenaries recruited south of Caspian Sea and from Afghanistan. Persian tactics relied heavily upon cavalry divisions centered on hills with wings extending outward.

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• 4. Conquest Of Syria And Egypt

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  Arab-Muslim raids following Ridda Wars prompted Byzantines to send major expeditions into southern Palestine. Khalid ibn al-Walid defeated these forces at Battle of Ajnadayn in 634. Ibn al-Walid had converted around 627 becoming one of Muhammad's most successful generals. He led his force across deserts to attack Byzantines from rear positions. At Battle of Yarmuk in 636 Arabs scored decisive victory defeating Heraclius. Ibn al-Walid appears to have been real military leader under nominal command of others. Syria was ordered abandoned to Muslims after this rout. Damascus fell after six-month siege though Heraclius later retook it. Jerusalem surrendered rather than starve to death during two-year siege ending in 638. Caliph Umar promised tolerance for Christians allowing Church of Holy Sepulchre to remain intact. Amr ibn al-As began conquest of Egypt province on own initiative in 639. Arab forces won major victory at Battle of Heliopolis in 640 but found difficulty advancing further. Babylon fortress garrison surrendered on the 9th of April 641 after being besieged. Alexandria capitulated in September 642 making Egypt the swiftest and most complete early Muslim conquest.

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• 5. Collapse Of The Sasanian Empire

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  Shah Yazdgerd III raised army to resist conquerors after Arab incursion into Sasanian territories. Many marzbans refused help leaving Persia vulnerable. Persian forces suffered devastating defeat at Battle of al-Qadisiyyah in 636 lasting several days by banks of Euphrates River. Abolishing Lakhmid buffer state forced Persians to take over desert defense themselves. Resulting loss gave Arab-Muslims control over whole Iraq including capital city Ctesiphon. Persian forces withdrew over Zagros mountains where Arab army pursued them across Iranian plateau. Fate of empire sealed at Battle of Nahavand in 642 known as Victory of Victories. After this crushing victory Persian state collapsed with Yezdegird III fleeing eastward. Various marzbans surrendered to Arabs while Yazdgerd took refuge in Khorasan before assassination by local satrap in 651. Some four hundred years later Persian poet Ferdowsi wrote about this defeat in Shahnameh poem expressing despair over uncivilized Arabs destroying great armies. Despite complete triumph over imperial army Muslims still faced militarily weak but geographically inaccessible principalities taking decades to bring under caliphate control.

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• 6. Expansion Into North Africa And Iberia

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  Arab forces began launching sporadic raiding expeditions into Cyrenaica soon after conquering Egypt. In 670 Arabs founded settlement Qayrawan giving forward base for further expansion. Muslim historians credit general Uqba ibn Nafi with subsequent conquest extending to Atlantic coast though appearing temporary incursion. Berber king Kusayla and enigmatic leader Kahina mounted effective resistance at end of seventh century. Sources do not give clear picture of these events despite their significance. Arab forces captured Carthage in 698 and Tangiers by 708. Many Berbers joined Muslim army after fall of Tangiers. In 740 Umayyad rule shaken by major Berber revolt involving Kharijite Muslims. Caliphate finally crushed rebellion in 742 though local dynasties continued drifting away from imperial control. Taking advantage of political division following death of Visigothic king Wittiza in 710, Muslim Berber commander Tariq ibn Ziyad crossed Strait of Gibraltar with army of Arabs and Berbers in 711. Most invasion force of fifteen thousand were Berbers with Arabs serving as elite force. Ziyad landed on Rock of Gibraltar on the 29th of April 711 defeating Roderic at river Guadalete on July 19th same year.

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• 7. Administrative Reorganization And Taxation

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  Two fundamental policies implemented during reign of second caliph Umar restricted Bedouins damaging agricultural production while leadership cooperated with local elites. Arab-Muslim armies settled in segregated quarters or new garrison towns such as Basra Kufa and Fustat. Soldiers received stipend prohibited from seizing lands. Arab governors supervised collection distribution of taxes leaving old religious social order intact. At first many provinces retained large degree autonomy under agreements made with commanders. As time passed conquerors sought increasing control over local affairs making existing machinery work for new regime. In Mediterranean region city-states replaced by territorial bureaucracy separating town rural administration. Egypt saw fiscally independent estates municipalities abolished favoring simplified administrative system. Early eighth century Syrian Arabs began replacing Coptic functionaries communal levies giving way to individual taxation. Iranian administrative reorganization construction protective walls prompted agglomeration villages into large cities like Isfahan Qazvin Qum. Local notables almost complete autonomy incorporated central bureaucracy by Abbasid period. Similarity Egyptian Khurasanian official paperwork suggests highly centralized empire-wide administration under caliph al-Mansur.

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• 8. Religious Pluralism And Social Change

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  Arab conquerors respected traditional Middle Eastern pattern religious pluralism involving dominance one group over others rather than equality. Before Muslims ready build mosques Syria accepted Christian churches holy places shared them locally. Iraq Egypt Muslim authorities cooperated Christian religious leaders numerous churches repaired built during Umayyad era. First Umayyad caliph Muawiyah made deliberate efforts convince conquered not opposed religion enlisting support Christian Arab elites. No evidence public display Islam state before reign Abd al-Malik 685-705 when Quranic verses references Muhammad suddenly prominent coins documents. This change motivated desire unify community after second civil war rally against Byzantine Empire. Following decades Islamic jurists elaborated legal framework other religions protected subordinate status. Theory like Byzantine empire caliphate placed severe restrictions paganism practice most non-Abrahamic communities former Sasanian territories classified differently. Conversion associated economic political advantages Muslim elites reluctant see privileges diluted. By beginning eighth century conversions became policy issue for caliphate favored religious activists many Arabs accepting equality Arabs non-Arabs. Public policy towards converts varied depending region changed successive Umayyad caliphs circumstances provoked opposition non-Arab converts ranks included active soldiers setting stage civil war ending fall Umayyad dynasty.

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