Samarkand
Human activity in the region of Samarkand dates back to the late Paleolithic Era. Archaeological excavations conducted within the city limits and suburban areas unearthed 40,000-year-old evidence of human life. Researchers at the Institute of Archaeology of Samarkand date the city's founding around 700 BC. By the time of the Persian Achaemenid Empire, it was the capital of the Sogdian satrapy. The city was conquered by Alexander the Great in 329 BC when it was known as Markanda. Greek sources rendered this name differently but preserved its identity as a major urban center. After Alexander's conquest, the city recovered rapidly and flourished under Hellenic influence. New construction techniques replaced oblong bricks with square ones. Superior methods of masonry and plastering were introduced during this period. Classical Greek culture influenced local artisans for a time. This legacy continued as the city became part of various successor states including the Seleucid Empire and Greco-Bactrian Kingdom. The Kushan Empire also controlled the area before losing Sogdia during the third century AD. Samarkand went into decline as an economic and political power until the fifth century revival.
Samarkand prospered from its location on the trade route between China and Europe. It became one of the largest cities in Central Asia during ancient times. The armies of the Umayyad Caliphate captured the city from the Tang dynasty around 710 CE. Qutayba ibn Muslim established an Arab garrison and governmental administration in the city. Zoroastrian fire temples were razed and a mosque was built. Much of the population converted to Islam over time. Legend has it that the secret of papermaking was obtained from two Chinese prisoners after the Battle of Talas in 751. This led to the foundation of the first paper mill in the Islamic world at Samarkand. The invention spread to the rest of the Islamic world and thence to Europe. Under Samanid rule from 875 to 999, the city became a capital of the Samanid dynasty. It served as an even more important node of numerous trade routes. The 10th-century Persian author Istakhri described the region as having unbroken greenery and gardens extending eight days travel through fertile land. Every town had a fortress and every home contained gardens with cisterns and flowing water. The area was considered the most fruitful country of Allah with the best trees and fruits.
The Mongols conquered Samarkand in 1220 under Genghis Khan. Juvayni writes that Genghis killed all who took refuge in the citadel and the mosque. He pillaged the city completely and conscripted 30,000 young men along with 30,000 craftsmen. Samarkand suffered at least one other Mongol sack by Khan Baraq to get treasure needed for an army. It remained part of the Chagatai Khanate until 1370. In 1370, Timur made Samarkand his capital after a revolt against Chagatai Mongol control occurred in 1365. Over the next 35 years, he rebuilt most of the city and populated it with great artisans from across the empire. Timur gained a reputation as a patron of the arts. He demonstrated mercy toward those with special artistic abilities while showing ruthlessness to enemies. The lives of artists, craftsmen, and architects were spared so they could improve and beautify Timur's capital. By his orders, Samarkand could be reached only by roads. Deep ditches were dug and walls separated the city from its surrounding neighbors. At this time, the city had a population of about 150,000 people. Henry III of Castile's ambassador Ruy Gonzalez de Clavijo visited between September and November 1404. He attested to the never-ending construction that went on in the city.
In 1500, nomadic Uzbek warriors took control of Samarkand. Muhammad Shaybani Khan became the leader and chose Samarkand as the capital of the newly formed Bukhara Khanate. From 1756 to 1868, it was ruled by the Manghud Emirs of Bukhara. The revival began during the reign of Muhammad Rakhim who became famous for strong-willed qualities. The city came under imperial Russian rule after Colonel Konstantin Petrovich von Kaufman took the citadel in 1868. A small Russian garrison of 500 men was besieged shortly thereafter. General Alexander Konstantovich Abramov became the first Governor of the Military Okrug with Samarkand as the administrative center. In 1886, the city became the capital of the newly formed Samarkand Oblast of Russian Turkestan. The Trans-Caspian railway reached it in 1888. During World War II, thousands of refugees from occupied western regions fled to the city. It served as one of the main hubs for fleeing civilians in the Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic. Samarkand was the capital of Turkestan Provisional Government in 1922 and the capital of the Uzbek SSR from 1925 to 1930 before being replaced by Tashkent. On the initiative of Academician Ibrohim Mo'minov, the 2500th anniversary of Samarkand was widely celebrated in 1970. A monument to Ulugh Beg was opened and a Museum of the History of Samarkand was founded.
According to official reports, a majority of Samarkand's inhabitants are Uzbeks while many sources refer to the city as having a majority Tajik population. Up to 70 percent of the city's population may be Tajiks according to some independent sources. Ethnic Uzbeks are the second-largest group and are most concentrated in the west of Samarkand. Exact demographic figures are difficult to obtain since some people identify as Uzbek even though they speak Tajiki as their first language. In the 1926 census, the number of Uzbeks was recorded as 43,364 and the Tajiks as only 10,716. This reflects how significant parts of the Tajik population were registered as Uzbek during that period. Samarkand is home to large ethnic communities including Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians, Armenians, Azeris, Tatars, Koreans, Poles, and Germans. These peoples live primarily in the center and western neighborhoods. They have emigrated to Samarkand since the end of the 19th century especially during the Soviet Era. The state and official language is Uzbek which is one of the Turkic languages. Russian is the de facto second official language with about 5% of signs and inscriptions in this language. De facto, the most common native language in Samarkand is Tajik which is a dialect or variant of Persian. While the official stance claims Uzbek is most common, data indicates only about 30% of residents speak it as a native tongue. For the other 70%, Tajik is the native tongue with Uzbek as the second language.
Timur initiated the building of Bibi-Khanym after his 1398, 1399 campaign in India. The mosque originally had about 450 marble columns hauled there with help from 95 elephants Timur brought back from Hindustan. An 1897 earthquake destroyed the columns which were not entirely restored in subsequent reconstruction. The best-known landmark is the mausoleum known as Gur-i Amir. It exhibits influences from many cultures past civilizations neighboring peoples and religions especially those of Islam. Despite devastation wrought by Mongols to pre-Timurid Islamic architecture, under Timur these styles were revived recreated and restored. The entrance to the Gur-i Amir is decorated with Arabic calligraphy and inscriptions. Inside the mausoleum, tiled walls are a marvelous example of mosaic faience an Iranian technique where each tile is cut colored and fit into place individually. The tiles spell out religious words such as Muhammad and Allah. Colors of buildings have significant meanings with blue being dominant. Blue was used to convey mourning ward off evil eye and represent water. Gold also has strong presence explaining excessive use in the Gur-i Amir. Timur's fascination with vaulting explains the use of gold in buildings. The city boasts two major gardens called New Garden and Garden of Heart's Delight which became central areas for entertainment. In 1218, Yelü Chucai reported Samarkand was surrounded by numerous gardens with canals and water fountains supplying round or square-shaped ponds.
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Common questions
When was Samarkand founded according to researchers at the Institute of Archaeology?
Researchers at the Institute of Archaeology date the city's founding around 700 BC. Human activity in the region dates back to the late Paleolithic Era with evidence found from 40,000 years ago.
Who conquered Samarkand in 329 BC and what name did Greek sources use for it?
Alexander the Great conquered Samarkand in 329 BC when it was known as Markanda. Greek sources rendered this name differently but preserved its identity as a major urban center under Hellenic influence.
How many craftsmen were conscripted by Genghis Khan during the Mongol conquest of Samarkand in 1220?
Genghis Khan conscripted 30,000 young men along with 30,000 craftsmen after pillaging the city completely. Juvayni writes that he killed all who took refuge in the citadel and the mosque.
What year did Timur make Samarkand his capital and how long did he rebuild the city?
Timur made Samarkand his capital in 1370 after a revolt against Chagatai Mongol control occurred in 1365. He rebuilt most of the city over the next 35 years while populating it with great artisans from across the empire.
When was the 2500th anniversary of Samarkand celebrated and what monuments were opened then?
The 2500th anniversary of Samarkand was widely celebrated in 1970 on the initiative of Academician Ibrohim Mo'minov. A monument to Ulugh Beg was opened and a Museum of the History of Samarkand was founded during this celebration.