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Samarkand: the story on HearLore | HearLore
Samarkand
Samarkand is a city in southeastern Uzbekistan and among the oldest continuously inhabited cities in Central Asia. Archaeological excavations conducted within the city limits and suburban areas have unearthed 40,000-year-old evidence of human activity, dating back to the Upper Paleolithic. The name itself comes from Iranian languages, combining words for stone and fort, meaning Stone City, a meaning it shares with the nearby capital Tashkent, which translates to Stone City in Turkic. By the time of the Persian Achaemenid Empire, the city had become the capital of the Sogdian satrapy, serving as a vital node on the trade route between China, Persia, and Europe. While there is no direct evidence of when Samarkand was founded, researchers at the Institute of Archaeology of Samarkand date the city's founding around 700 BC, though some theories propose it was established between the 8th and 7th centuries BC. The city's strategic location allowed it to prosper as a center of Sogdian civilization, eventually becoming one of the largest cities in Central Asia before its decline and subsequent revival.
Alexander and the Paper Mill
Alexander the Great conquered Samarkand in 329 BC, when it was known as Markanda, which was rendered in Greek as Maracanda. The city suffered significant damage during the initial conquest, yet it recovered rapidly and flourished under the new Hellenic influence. Alexander's conquests introduced classical Greek culture into Central Asia, and for a time, Greek aesthetics heavily influenced local artisans. The city became part of various successor states, including the Greek Seleucid Empire, Greco-Bactrian Kingdom, and Kushan Empire. However, the city did not significantly revive until the 5th century after the Kushan state lost control of Sogdia during the 3rd century AD. A pivotal moment in the city's history occurred during the Abbasid rule, when legend has it that the secret of papermaking was obtained from two Chinese prisoners from the Battle of Talas in 751. This led to the foundation of the first paper mill in the Islamic world at Samarkand, an invention that spread to the rest of the Islamic world and thence to Europe, fundamentally changing the course of human knowledge and communication.
Timur's Eternal City
In 1370, the conqueror Timur, also known as Tamerlane, made Samarkand his capital and used various tools for legitimisation, including urban planning in his capital. Over the next 35 years, he rebuilt most of the city and populated it with great artisans and craftsmen from across the empire. Timur gained a reputation as a patron of the arts, and Samarkand grew to become the centre of the region of Transoxiana. His commitment to the arts is evident in how, in contrast with the ruthlessness he showed his enemies, he demonstrated mercy toward those with special artistic abilities. The lives of artists, craftsmen, and architects were spared so that they could improve and beautify Timur's capital. The city was in a state of constant construction, and Timur would often order buildings to be done and redone quickly if he was unsatisfied with the results. By his orders, Samarkand could be reached only by roads; deep ditches were dug, and walls 15 kilometers in circumference separated the city from its surrounding neighbors. At this time, the city had a population of about 150,000. Henry III of Castile's ambassador Ruy Gonzalez de Clavijo, who visited Samarkand between the 8th of September and the 20th of November 1404, attested to the never-ending construction that went on in the city, describing the Bibi-Khanym Mosque as the noblest of all those they visited.
When was Samarkand founded according to researchers at the Institute of Archaeology of Samarkand?
Researchers at the Institute of Archaeology of Samarkand date the city's founding around 700 BC, though some theories propose it was established between the 8th and 7th centuries BC. Archaeological excavations have unearthed 40,000-year-old evidence of human activity dating back to the Upper Paleolithic.
What happened to Samarkand during the Battle of Talas in 751?
During the Battle of Talas in 751, two Chinese prisoners revealed the secret of papermaking to the Abbasids. This event led to the foundation of the first paper mill in the Islamic world at Samarkand, an invention that spread to the rest of the Islamic world and thence to Europe.
Who made Samarkand his capital in 1370 and how did he develop the city?
The conqueror Timur, also known as Tamerlane, made Samarkand his capital in 1370 and used urban planning to legitimize his rule. Over the next 35 years, he rebuilt most of the city, populated it with great artisans and craftsmen, and ordered walls 15 kilometers in circumference to separate the city from its surrounding neighbors.
What scientific achievements did Ulugh Beg accomplish in Samarkand during the 15th century?
Ulugh Beg built a madrasah in Samarkand between 1417 and 1420 and constructed an observatory in 1428. His observatory featured the Fakhri Sextant, a wall quadrant with a radius of 40 meters, which made Samarkand one of the world centers of medieval science.
When did the Mongols conquer Samarkand and what were the consequences of that invasion?
The Mongols conquered Samarkand in 1220, and Genghis Khan killed all who took refuge in the citadel and the mosque. The Mongols pillaged the city completely and conscripted 30,000 young men along with 30,000 craftsmen.
When was Samarkand added to the UNESCO World Heritage List and what modern events has the city hosted?
UNESCO added Samarkand to its World Heritage List in 2001 as Samarkand, Crossroads of Cultures. The city hosted the 2022 SCO summit on the 15th and the 16th of September 2022 and has hosted the Samarkand Half Marathon since 2019.
Between 1417 and 1420, Timur's grandson Ulugh Beg built a madrasah in Samarkand, which became the first building in the architectural ensemble of Registan. Ulugh Beg invited a large number of astronomers and mathematicians of the Islamic world to this madrasah. Under Ulugh Beg, Samarkand became one of the world centers of medieval science. In the first half of the 15th century, a whole scientific school arose around Ulugh Beg, uniting prominent astronomers and mathematicians including Jamshid al-Kashi, Qādi Zāda al-Rūmī, and Ali Qushji. Ulugh Beg's main interest in science was astronomy, and he constructed an observatory in 1428. Its main instrument was the wall quadrant, which was unique in the world. It was known as the Fakhri Sextant and had a radius of 40 meters. Seen in the image on the left, the arc was finely constructed with a staircase on either side to provide access for the assistants who performed the measurements. This scientific school made Samarkand a beacon of knowledge, where the stars were mapped with unprecedented precision, influencing astronomy for centuries to come.
The Mongol Sack and Soviet Revival
The Mongols conquered Samarkand in 1220. Juvayni writes that Genghis killed all who took refuge in the citadel and the mosque, pillaged the city completely, and conscripted 30,000 young men along with 30,000 craftsmen. Samarkand suffered at least one other Mongol sack by Khan Baraq to get treasure he needed to pay an army. It remained part of the Chagatai Khanate until 1370. The city came under imperial Russian rule after the citadel had been taken by a force under Colonel Konstantin Petrovich von Kaufman in 1868. Shortly thereafter the small Russian garrison of 500 men were themselves besieged. The city became the capital of the newly formed Samarkand Oblast of Russian Turkestan in 1886 and regained even more importance when the Trans-Caspian railway reached it in 1888. During World War II, after Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union, thousands of refugees from the occupied western regions of the USSR fled to the city, and it served as one of the main hubs for the fleeing civilians in the Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic and the Soviet Union as a whole. In 1970, the 2500th anniversary of Samarkand was widely celebrated, leading to the opening of a monument to Ulugh Beg and the founding of the Museum of the History of Samarkand.
Crossroads of Faith and Language
Samarkand has a multicultural and plurilingual history that was significantly modified by the process of national delimitation in Central Asia. A small group of inhabitants of the city are bilingual speakers of the Tajik language, while Uzbek is the official language and Russian is also widely used in the public sphere. According to official reports, a majority of Samarkand's inhabitants are Uzbeks, while many sources refer to the city as majority Tajik, with up to 70 percent of the city's population being Tajik. Tajiks are especially concentrated in the eastern part of the city, where the main architectural landmarks are. Ethnic Uzbeks are the second-largest group and are most concentrated in the west of Samarkand. Exact demographic figures are difficult to obtain since some people in Uzbekistan identify as Uzbek even though they speak Tajiki as their first language. The city is also home to large ethnic communities of Iranians, Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians, Armenians, Azeris, Tatars, Koreans, Poles, and Germans, all of whom live primarily in the centre and western neighborhoods of the city. These peoples have emigrated to Samarkand since the end of the 19th century, especially during the Soviet Era. Islam entered Samarkand in the 8th century, and the city is noted as a centre of Islamic scholarly study and the birthplace of the Timurid Renaissance. Christianity was introduced to Samarkand when it was part of Sogdiana, long before the penetration of Islam into Central Asia, and the city became one of the centers of Nestorianism in Central Asia.
Registan and the Blue Domes
Samarkand's Registan square was the city's ancient centre and is bounded by three monumental religious buildings. The best-known landmark of Samarkand is the mausoleum known as Gur-i Amir, which exhibits the influences of many cultures, past civilizations, neighboring peoples, and religions, especially those of Islam. The blueprint and layout of the mosque itself, with their precise measurements, demonstrate the Islamic passion for geometry. The entrance to the Gur-i Amir is decorated with Arabic calligraphy and inscriptions, the latter a common feature in Islamic architecture. Timur's meticulous attention to detail is especially obvious inside the mausoleum: the tiled walls are a marvelous example of mosaic faience, an Iranian technique in which each tile is cut, colored, and fit into place individually. The tiles of the Gur-i Amir were also arranged so that they spell out religious words such as Muhammad and Allah. The dominant architectural color is blue, which Timur used to convey a broad range of concepts. For example, the shades of blue in the Gur-i Amir are colors of mourning; in that era, blue was the color of mourning in Central Asia, as it still is in various cultures today. Blue was also considered the color that could ward off the evil eye in Central Asia. Furthermore, blue represented water, a particularly rare resource in the Middle East and Central Asia; walls painted blue symbolized the wealth of the city. Gold also has a strong presence in the city, with Timur's fascination with vaulting explaining the excessive use of gold in the Gur-i Amir, as well as the use of embroidered gold fabric in both the city and his buildings.
Modern Crossroads of Cultures
Modern Samarkand is divided into two parts: the old city, which includes historical monuments, shops, and old private houses; and the new city, which was developed during the days of the Russian Empire and Soviet Union and includes administrative buildings along with cultural centres and educational institutions. In 2001, UNESCO added the city to its World Heritage List as Samarkand , Crossroads of Cultures. On 15 and the 16th of September 2022, the city hosted the 2022 SCO summit. Modern Samarkand is a vibrant city, and in 2019 the city hosted the first Samarkand Half Marathon. In 2022 this also included a full marathon for the first time. Silk Road Samarkand is a modern multiplex which opened in early 2022 in eastern Samarkand. The complex covers 260 hectares and includes world-class business and medical hotels, eateries, recreational facilities, park grounds, an ethnographic corner and a large congress hall for hosting international events. The Eternal City situated in Silk Road Samarkand complex occupies 17 hectares and accurately recreates the spirit of the ancient city backed up by the history and traditions of Uzbek lands and Uzbek people for the guests of the Silk Road Samarkand. The city has a strong public-transport system, with municipal buses and taxis operating from Soviet times up through today, and Samarkand International Airport, which was opened in the 1930s, under the Soviets, now offering flights to various cities including Tashkent, Moscow, and Istanbul.