Buddhist music
In the Ghitassara Sutta, a text from the Anguttara Nikaya dated to the early centuries of the Common Era, the Buddha admonishes monks for reciting teachings with musical intonation. He lists five specific dangers: attachment to sound by the singer and listener, annoyance among householders who compare the monks' singing to their own songs, destruction of concentration for those who dislike the music, and the risk that future generations will copy this style. This passage establishes an early tension between monastic discipline and musical expression. The Vinayas, or monastic codes, generally reject musical chanting as a sensuous distraction that hinders meditative concentration known as samadhi. Monks and nuns are prohibited from listening to or performing music because it is connected with sensual pleasure rather than spiritual liberation.
Yet other passages in the same early texts offer a different perspective. In Sakka's Questions, a celestial musician named Pañcaśikha sings verses accompanied by a lute called a cymophane. The Buddha listens and praises the performance, noting that the voice and instrument move people's hearts without being too long or short. The Mahaparinibbana sutta describes heavenly music playing in the sky at the moment of the Buddha's death, while laypeople venerate him with dance and song after his passing. These positive accounts suggest that music could serve as a valid offering if performed with the right intention.
The philosophical debate deepens in later sources like the Sutra of the Questions by Druma, King of the Kinnara. Translated into Chinese by Lokakshema and later by Kumārajīva in the fifth century, this text presents a detailed philosophy where sound itself becomes a vehicle for enlightenment. King Druma plays a veena made of beryl, a transparent green stone symbolizing emptiness. He explains that all sounds emerge from empty space and disappear when heard, proving that dharmas cannot be attained within sound itself. This paradox allows musicians to practice the path without abandoning their art, turning music into a concrete example of emptiness rather than just an offering.
Chinese Buddhist chanting known as fanbai emerged during the Three Kingdoms period and drew on both indigenous musical theory and Mahayana scriptures. Zhi Qian, a translator active around the third century, compiled Sung Chants for Sakra Accompanied by Qin Music, establishing early precedents for solemn recitation without instrumental accompaniment. Emperor Wu of Liang, who reigned during the Six Dynasties period, composed pieces himself and introduced large-scale Dharma assemblies featuring music and chanting at his court.
By the Tang dynasty, Buddhist music flourished with three main forms: hymns recited in temples for ritual services, proselytizing music called sujiang used in popular preaching, and foqu songs performed during celebrations. Specialized venues called bianchang developed alongside troupes of performers known as yinsheng who specialized in these popular styles. The imperial court maintained its own groups of Buddhist musicians who participated in major ceremonies like Xuanzang's funeral. These performances influenced secular musical styles including cipai and qupai compositions that persisted through subsequent dynasties until the Qing era.
Korean Buddhist music developed distinct traditions under the name pomp'ae. Two primary styles exist: chissori, described as grand and elaborated, and hossori, characterized as simple. Chanted texts appear in Chinese, Sanskrit, or Korean depending on the specific style. When accompanied by dance, the tradition becomes chak pop, which includes three types: na bi ch'um (butterfly dance), para ch'um (cymbal dance), and pop go ch'um (ceremonial drum dance). One famous instrumental piece called Yongsan hoe sang remains influential today.
Japanese Buddhism introduced shōmyō around the twelfth century as a monophonal vocal style performed by monks in Tendai, Obaku, and Shingon sects. This tradition dates back to 752 when hundreds of monks at Tōdai-ji performed hymns during the kaigen ceremony for the Great Buddha. A classic collection compiled by Kekan in 1173 includes chants in Sanskrit, Chinese, and Japanese that remain central to the Tendai school. Another genre called kōshiki originated in the Tendai school before spreading to other traditions including Zen Buddhism. The Meiji period between 1868 and 1912 saw modernization efforts where traditional styles like shomyo were preserved while new compositions borrowed from Western musical forms.
Tibetan Buddhist music developed unique vocal techniques alongside ritual instruments used in tantric practices. Monks practice throat singing or overtone singing, a specialized form allowing singers to produce separate notes simultaneously. Instruments include small hand drums called damaru, hand bells known as dril-bu, horns, cymbals, rgya-gling oboes, gandi wooden gongs, dung dkar conch trumpets, Mongolian yat-ga zithers, and dra-nyen lutes.
The Chod tradition founded by Machik Labdrön between 1055 and 1153 incorporates songs with instrumental accompaniment into ritual practices. Contemporary figures like Khenpo Tsultrim Gyamtso compose yogic songs and encourage students to translate them into their own languages and sing using national melodies. His approach treats singing Dharma songs as an extraordinarily skillful technique that brings joy to practitioners.
Historical figures shaped these traditions significantly. Milarepa composed the Hundred Thousand Songs which remain popular today. Gotsangpa Gonpo Dorje lived from 1189 to 1258 and began as a traveling performance artist before becoming an influential lama who founded the Upper Druk lineage of the Drukpa Kagyu school. Mendicant musicians and epic storytellers called Sgrung-mkhan focus on the Epic of King Gesar while Manipa groups sing mgur devotional songs alongside mantras including the famous Mani mantra.
Tibetan Buddhism developed its own musical notation system with manuscripts surviving in use until the present day. Individual schools and monasteries maintain distinct chant traditions reflecting regional variations. The Cham dance represents another Tibetan Buddhist performance art incorporating music into ceremonial contexts.
Theravada chanting typically occurs in Pali language sometimes interspersed with vernacular translations. Common types include Tisarana (Three Refuges), Pancasila (Five Precepts), Upajjhatthana (Five Remembrances), Metta Sutta (Loving Kindness), and Mangala Sutta (Blessings). These chants vary by tradition with some preferring monotone delivery while others adopt melodic approaches.
Sinhalese Theravada communities practice poya hewisi services accompanied by drumming at sites like the Tooth Relic Temple. This tradition traces back to the eighteenth century when new forms emerged including prashasti praise songs. Modern lay ensembles called hevisi make musical offerings known as shabda puja at temples. Music, dance, and theater form central elements of Sinhalese temple processions such as the Kandy Esala Perahera festival.
Cambodian Buddhism features Smot chanting as a traditional form found outside Sri Lanka. Myanmar hosts dhamma thachin or dhamma tay, contemporary genres composed during the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. Popular recording artists include Soe Sandar Tun and Mandalay Thein Zaw who create songs extolling the Buddha or exhorting listeners to follow teachings. Some compositions use traditional Burmese instruments and vocal stylings associated with Mahāgīta classical music.
Nepalese Newar Buddhists maintain rich traditions including dhāpā cācā and bājans. Dāphā represents the oldest surviving devotional genre originating in the seventeenth century. Gunlā Bājan commonly appears during religious processions and the holy month of Gumlā where groups meet at Svayambhū stūpa hill to circumambulate while using nāykhī small drums and larger dhā drums alongside cymbals and woodwinds. Gyānmālā bājan adopts modern Indian bhajans using harmonium tabla keyboards and guitars.
Contemporary Western Buddhists have adopted various Asian chanting traditions while also creating new genres blending punk metal folk and electronic styles. Tina Turner released music based on Japanese Nichiren Buddhist chanting while Lee Mirabai Harrington sings Buddhist kirtan influenced by Indian styles. American monk Heng Sure produced albums titled American Buddhist Folk Songs featuring healing tunes that can last twelve hours or even twenty-one days during holiday sessions starting at 4:00 AM.
Japanese clergy began adopting traditional texts into rock and pop music during the 2000s. Modern technology like vocaloids robots and keyboards promote Buddhist chanting through internet distribution. The Vowz Band created rock adaptations of Buddhist chants demonstrating how ancient texts find new life in contemporary formats.
International collaborations expanded these boundaries further. The Beyond Singing Project combined Buddhist chants with Christian choral music in 2009 involving Tina Turner and Dechen Shak-Dagsay. Dutch gothic-symphonic metal band Epica incorporated Tibetan monk prayer chants as background openings in their 2009 Design Your Universe album, 2014's The Quantum Enigma, and 2021's Omega release.
Popular singers include Chinese-Malaysian Imee Ooi, Tibetan singer Dechen Shak-Dagsay, Nepalese Ani Choying Drolma, and Japanese priest Kanho Yakushiji. Hip hop artist MC Happiness and Metal group The Firstborn represent newer genre explorations. These artists demonstrate how traditional sounds adapt to modern contexts while maintaining devotional intent.
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Common questions
What does the Ghitassara Sutta say about Buddhist music?
The Ghitassara Sutta from the early centuries of the Common Era admonishes monks for reciting teachings with musical intonation. It lists five specific dangers including attachment to sound, annoyance among householders, destruction of concentration, and the risk that future generations will copy this style.
When did Chinese Buddhist chanting known as fanbai emerge?
Chinese Buddhist chanting known as fanbai emerged during the Three Kingdoms period. Zhi Qian compiled Sung Chants for Sakra Accompanied by Qin Music around the third century to establish early precedents for solemn recitation without instrumental accompaniment.
How many main forms of Buddhist music existed during the Tang dynasty?
Three main forms of Buddhist music flourished during the Tang dynasty: hymns recited in temples for ritual services, proselytizing music called sujiang used in popular preaching, and foqu songs performed during celebrations. Specialized venues called bianchang developed alongside troupes of performers known as yinsheng who specialized in these popular styles.
Who founded the Chod tradition and when did it develop?
Machik Labdrön founded the Chod tradition between 1055 and 1153. This tradition incorporates songs with instrumental accompaniment into ritual practices and treats singing Dharma songs as an extraordinarily skillful technique that brings joy to practitioners.
What instruments are used in Tibetan Buddhist music?
Tibetan Buddhist music uses small hand drums called damaru, hand bells known as dril-bu, horns, cymbals, rgya-gling oboes, gandi wooden gongs, dung dkar conch trumpets, Mongolian yat-ga zithers, and dra-nyen lutes. Monks also practice throat singing or overtone singing to produce separate notes simultaneously.