Bronze
The word bronze entered English between 1730 and 1740. It traveled from Middle French, which borrowed it from Italian in the thirteenth century. Medieval Latin transcribed the term as a specific form derived from Byzantine Greek. Some etymologists trace the root to Old Persian words meaning primary or first. Others suggest a connection to Georgian, Turkish, and Armenian terms sharing similar meanings. A Dictionary of the English Language published in 1746 defined it as a composition of copper and tin melted together. Chambers Dictionary in 1872 described it as an alloy with a brown or burned color. The earliest known tin-copper-alloy artifact dates to approximately 3500 BCE at Pločnik in Serbia. This site belonged to the Vinča culture. Archaeologists believe this object was smelted from natural stannite ore. Other early examples appear in Egypt, Susa, Iran, and China during the late fourth millennium BCE.
The Bronze Age began in western Eurasia around 3500 BCE. In China, this period started later, near the beginning of the second millennium BCE. Ironworking advanced significantly after 1300 BCE, marking the start of the Iron Age. Population migrations between 1200 and 1100 BCE disrupted tin trade routes across the Mediterranean. Shipments from Britain also declined during these years. These disruptions raised prices and limited supplies for bronze production. Iron became cheaper and improved in quality as blacksmiths developed machine-forging techniques. Water-powered trip hammers allowed artisans to create steel stronger than bronze. Steel held a sharper edge longer than any previous metal. Despite these changes, bronze remained widely used throughout the Iron Age. Large hoards of socketed axes found in Europe show no signs of wear. These artifacts suggest bronze served as both a tool and a store of value. The British deposits in Cornwall supplied tin traded as far east as Phoenicia.
Modern bronze typically contains about 88 percent copper and 12 percent tin. Alpha bronze alloys with 4 to 5 percent tin make coins, springs, turbines, and blades. Historical bronzes varied greatly because metalworkers often mixed whatever scrap was available. The 12th-century English Gloucester Candlestick contained copper, zinc, tin, lead, nickel, iron, antimony, arsenic, and up to 5.76 percent silver. This mixture suggests it was crafted from old coins. Bronze has a Vickers hardness between 60 and 258. Wrought iron measures only 30 to 80 on the same scale. Copper-based alloys melt at lower temperatures than steel or iron. They conduct heat and electricity better than most steels. Bronzes are ductile and less brittle than cast iron. A layer of copper oxide protects the underlying metal from further corrosion. Bronze disease occurs when copper chlorides form and eventually destroy the object completely. Some alloys containing iron or nickel exhibit magnetic properties while others remain nonmagnetic.
The Seagram Building in New York City stands 516 feet tall and features floor-to-ceiling glass walls sheathed in bronze. General Bronze Corporation fabricated 3,200,000 pounds of material for this project in Garden City, New York. In 1958, the building cost $36 million, making it the most expensive structure of its time. Mies van der Rohe designed the iconic glass box with custom-made screws holding fixed glass-plate windows. Bronze resists salt water corrosion, which made it ideal for ship propellers and submerged bearings before stainless steel became common. Silicon bronze allows color-matched repairs of defects in castings. Phosphor bronze serves as precision-grade bearings and springs. It is also used in guitar and piano strings. Bronze parts generate no sparks when struck against hard surfaces. This property makes them safe to use in explosive atmospheres or near flammable vapors. The Doehler Die Casting Company produced Brastil, a high tensile corrosion-resistant alloy in Toledo, Ohio.
Assyrian king Sennacherib ruled from 704 to 681 BCE and claimed to be the first to cast monumental bronze statues weighing up to 30 tonnes. He used two-part moulds instead of the lost-wax method. Ancient Greek art regarded bronze statues as the highest form of sculpture. Most originals melted down during the Classical period survive only through Roman marble copies. Indian artisans from the Chola empire created intricate Hindu deities using the lost-wax casting technique. Craftsmen still work today in Swamimalai and Chennai. Chinese ritual bronzes from the Shang and Zhou dynasties included ceremonial vessels and figurines. The Houmuwu ding, found in China between 1300 and 1046 BC, remains the heaviest Chinese ritual bronze ever discovered. It bears an inscription reading Queen Mother Wu on its interior wall. Bronze expands slightly before setting, filling fine details in moulds. As it cools, it shrinks just enough to separate easily from the form.
Bell metal contains about 23 percent tin and 77 percent copper. This high-tin alloy produces resonant qualities ideal for bells. Nearly all professional cymbals use B20 bronze, which is roughly 20 percent tin and 80 percent copper with traces of silver. B8 bronze contains 8 percent tin and 92 percent copper for tougher applications. Rising tin content lowers the timbre of a bell or cymbal. Ancient bronze drums from Thailand and Vietnam date back 2,000 years. Bronze bells from Thailand and Cambodia reach as far back as 3600 BCE. Tibetan singing bowls continue to be made in the Himalayas. Before flat glass surfaces became possible, bronze served as standard material for mirrors. Egyptian Middle Kingdom mirrors survive from 2040 to 1750 BCE. Etruscan artisans crafted decorated bronze mirrors in sixth-century BCE Europe. Bronze mirrors remained in production in Japan and Kerala, India, into the eighteenth century. The earliest bronze finds in Indonesia date from 1 to 2 BCE. These include flat plates struck by wooden or bone mallets.
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Common questions
When did the word bronze enter the English language?
The word bronze entered English between 1730 and 1740. It traveled from Middle French, which borrowed it from Italian in the thirteenth century.
What is the earliest known tin-copper-alloy artifact date and location?
The earliest known tin-copper-alloy artifact dates to approximately 3500 BCE at Pločnik in Serbia. This site belonged to the Vinča culture and archaeologists believe this object was smelted from natural stannite ore.
How much copper and tin does modern bronze typically contain?
Modern bronze typically contains about 88 percent copper and 12 percent tin. Alpha bronze alloys with 4 to 5 percent tin make coins, springs, turbines, and blades.
Who ruled Assyria when Sennacherib cast monumental bronze statues weighing up to 30 tonnes?
Assyrian king Sennacherib ruled from 704 to 681 BCE and claimed to be the first to cast monumental bronze statues weighing up to 30 tonnes. He used two-part moulds instead of the lost-wax method.
When did the Bronze Age begin in western Eurasia and China respectively?
The Bronze Age began in western Eurasia around 3500 BCE. In China, this period started later, near the beginning of the second millennium BCE.