Antony and Cleopatra
The story of Antony and Cleopatra begins in 1579 with a translation by Sir Thomas North. This English version of Plutarch's Lives provided the raw material for Shakespeare's play. North translated from an ancient Greek text, creating a narrative that followed the relationship between Cleopatra and Mark Antony from the Sicilian revolt to her suicide during the War of Actium. Shakespeare borrowed phrases directly from North's work, including Enobarbus' famous description of Cleopatra on her barge. The line about the burnished throne burning on water appears almost verbatim in both texts. However, Shakespeare added scenes showing Cleopatra's domestic life and developed the role of Enobarbus significantly. Historical facts were altered for dramatic effect. In Plutarch's account, Antony's final defeat occurred many weeks after the Battle of Actium. Octavia lived with Antony for several years and bore him two children named Antonia Major and Antonia Minor. These historical deviations allowed Shakespeare to focus on character dynamics rather than strict chronology.
Scholars estimate the play was written around 1606 or 1607. Some researchers argue for an earlier date near 1603 or 1604. The King's Men performed it at either the Blackfriars Theatre or the Globe Theatre around 1607. The play did not appear in print until the First Folio published in 1623 under the title The Tragedie of Anthonie, and Cleopatra. It was entered in the Stationers Register in May 1608 but remained unprinted for fifteen years. The Folio serves as the only authoritative text today. Some scholars speculate the text derives from Shakespeare's own draft papers called foul papers. These documents contain minor errors in speech labels and stage directions characteristic of the author during composition. Modern editions divide the play into five acts though Shakespeare created no such divisions. His work contains forty separate scenes more than any other play he wrote. Scene changes are fluid and almost montage-like requiring frequent shifts between Alexandria Italy Messina Sicily Syria Athens and other locations. The play features thirty-four speaking characters typical for a Shakespeare tragedy of this epic scale.
Critics struggle to categorize Antony and Cleopatra within a single genre. The work functions as a history play despite not completely adhering to historical accounts. It operates simultaneously as a tragedy comedy romance and problem play according to some critics like McCarter. All that can be said with certainty is that it remains a Roman play. Many view it perhaps as a sequel to another Shakespeare tragedy Julius Caesar. The classification difficulty stems from the play's complex structure and shifting tones. Traditional definitions fail to capture its unique qualities. The narrative moves between sensual imaginative Alexandria and pragmatic austere Rome creating tonal dissonance. This geographical and linguistic alternation defies standard genre boundaries. Critics have debated whether the play prioritizes political history or personal tragedy. Some argue the focus on Cleopatra makes it a romance while others see it as a straightforward historical account. The ambiguity itself becomes a defining feature rather than a flaw. No single label adequately describes the full scope of the work.
Intellectuals of the 19th century and early 20th century viewed Cleopatra as merely an object of sexuality. T.S. Eliot described her as no wielder of power but rather someone whose devouring sexuality diminishes her authority. His writings use images of darkness desire beauty sensuality and carnality to portray not a strong powerful woman but a temptress. He frequently refers to her as thing rather than person. Other scholars discuss early critics' views in relation to a serpent signifying original sin. The symbol functions at the symbolic level as a means of her submission. The phallic appropriation of the queen's body represents the land it embodies by Octavius and the empire. The serpent because it represents temptation sin and feminine weakness undermines Cleopatra's political authority. Postmodern views present a complex picture where we cannot grasp the character apart from the entire cultural milieu. Doris Adler suggests that isolating any single aspect distorts understanding yet examination improves comprehension of broader context. Donald C. Freeman articulates meaning through the deaths of both Antony and Cleopatra. He states Cleopatra becomes the transcendent queen of immortal longings while her mortality can no longer restrain her. She sublimates from earthly flesh to ethereal fire and air unlike Antony who melts.
The relationship between Egypt and Rome forms the central dichotomy allowing insight into characters and ongoing events. Literary critics have spent years developing arguments concerning the masculinity of Rome and the femininity of Egypt. Traditional criticism characterizes Rome as structured moral mature and essentially masculine. Egypt appears as the polar opposite: chaotic immoral immature and feminine. Even the distinction between masculine and feminine is purely a Roman idea which Egyptians largely ignore. Romans view the world as something for them to conquer and control believing they are impervious to environmental influence. Egyptians see themselves as deeply entwined with natural earth viewing life as fluid and less structured. The Egyptian worldview reflects geo-humoralism or belief that climate shapes racial character. Mary Floyd-Wilson notes this concept in English Ethnicity and Race in Early Modern Drama. Cleopatra envisions herself as embodiment of Egypt nurtured by dung beggar's nurse and Caesar. Romans view Egyptians as improper their passion for life viewed as irresponsible indulgent over-sexualized and disorderly. John Gillies argues the orientalism of Cleopatra's court seems systematic inversion of legendary Roman values. This includes luxury decadence splendour sensuality appetite effeminacy and eunuchs. Richmond Barbour identifies proto-orientalism existing before age of imperialism. Shakespeare used widespread assumptions about exotic east with little academic recourse laying foundation for Western superiority versus Eastern inferiority.
Cleopatra constantly occupies center stage if not physically then certainly within discourse often charged with sexual innuendos and disparaging tirades from male Roman world. All characters male or female were played by men creating unique theatrical challenges. Phyllis Rackin points out one of most descriptive scenes spoken by Enobarbus evokes Cleopatra's arrival on Cynus. It is elaborate description that could never possibly be portrayed by young boy actor. Before boy playing Cleopatra can evoke her greatness he must remind us he cannot truly represent it. Images of Cleopatra must be described rather than seen on stage. Critics argue Shakespeare relied upon poetry and audience imagination to evoke her greatness because he knew boy actor could not depict it convincingly. In Act Five Scene Two Cleopatra exclaims Antony shall be brought drunken forth and I shall see some squeaking Cleopatra boy my greatness in posture of whore. Many scholars interpret these lines as metatheatrical reference to Shakespeare's own production commenting on his stage. Tracey Sedinger interprets this as critique of London stage perpetuating boy actors playing woman establishing superiority of male spectator sexuality. The cross-dresser becomes structure enacting failure of dominant epistemology where knowledge equated with visibility. Boy actors portraying female sexuality contradicted simple ontology associating sight with knowledge.
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Common questions
When was the play Antony and Cleopatra written?
Scholars estimate that Shakespeare wrote Antony and Cleopatra around 1606 or 1607. Some researchers argue for an earlier date near 1603 or 1604.
What source material did William Shakespeare use for Antony and Cleopatra?
The story of Antony and Cleopatra begins in 1579 with a translation by Sir Thomas North. This English version of Plutarch's Lives provided the raw material for Shakespeare's play.
Where was the play Antony and Cleopatra first performed?
The King's Men performed it at either the Blackfriars Theatre or the Globe Theatre around 1607. The play did not appear in print until the First Folio published in 1623 under the title The Tragedie of Anthonie, and Cleopatra.
How many scenes does the play Antony and Cleopatra contain?
His work contains forty separate scenes more than any other play he wrote. Modern editions divide the play into five acts though Shakespeare created no such divisions.
Who are the historical figures mentioned as children of Octavia in relation to Antony and Cleopatra?
Octavia lived with Antony for several years and bore him two children named Antonia Major and Antonia Minor. These historical deviations allowed Shakespeare to focus on character dynamics rather than strict chronology.