Trajan's Parthian campaign
In 113, Roman emperor Trajan decided that the moment was ripe for a final resolution of the eastern question. He sought to defeat Parthia and annex Armenia as a province. This decision marked a deliberate change in Roman policy toward its ancient rival. The war initially succeeded, but setbacks later ended in withdrawal. Many modern historians argue economic motives drove this choice. After annexing Arabia, Trajan built Via Traiana Nova from Bostra to Aila on the Red Sea. Charax on the Persian Gulf remained the sole western terminus of Indian trade outside direct Roman control. Breaking down this system could lower import prices and limit the drain of precious metals. Some scholars suggest trade between Rome and India might have been more balanced than previously thought. Pliny the Elder described the Gangetic Plains as one of the gold sources for the empire. Other historians reject these motives entirely. They view the campaign as triggered by territorial annexation and prestige alone. Cassius Dio attributed the motive solely to expansionist dreams. Emissaries from the Kushan Empire attended commemorative ceremonies for the Dacian War. These events may have kindled speculative dreams about booty among Greco-Roman intellectuals like Plutarch. One source claimed only about 70,000 Roman soldiers were necessary to conquer India. A powerful circle of conservative senators from Hispania supported an expansionist policy. Sura was all-powerful within this group. For Romans, their empire was unlimited in principle. Trajan simply took advantage of an opportunity to make idea and reality coincide.
Trajan marched first on Armenia in 114. He deposed the Parthian-appointed king who was later murdered while kept in custody. Fronto described this incident as a breach of Roman good faith. The emperor annexed Armenia to the Roman Empire as a province. He received acknowledgement of Roman hegemony from various tribes in the Caucasus. This process kept him busy until the end of 114. A Roman column under legate Lusius Quietus crossed the Araxes river into Media Atropatene. Quietus commanded a unit from his native Mauretania during the Dacian Wars. His campaign likely aimed to extend the defensible border eastward toward the Caspian Sea. It also extended northward to the foothills of the Caucasus mountains. The land of the Mardians lay within present-day Ghilan. These actions consolidated territory between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. Permanent garrisons were placed along the way to secure the area. The chronology of subsequent events remains uncertain but generally believed to be early 115. Trajan launched a Mesopotamian campaign marching down towards the Taurus mountains. He organized a province including the Kingdom of Osrhoene where King Abgar VII submitted publicly. According to Cassius Dio, the deal was sealed by the king's son offering himself as Trajan's paramour.
Trajan sailed down the Euphrates from Dura-Europos through Ozogardana. A triumphal arch stood in his honor at Dura-Europos. He dragged his fleet overland into the Tigris and captured Seleucia. Finally, he took the Parthian capital of Ctesiphon. After wintering in Antioch during 115/116, he escaped a violent earthquake that claimed one consul's life. Marcus Pedo Vergilianus died in this disaster. In 116, Trajan again took to the field with an overambitious goal. He intended to conquer the whole of Mesopotamia. One Roman division crossed the Tigris into Adiabene and swept south to capture Adenystrae. A second followed the river south and captured Babylon. Trajan continued southward to the Persian Gulf. His fleet escaped a tidal bore on the Tigris. He received submission from Athambelus, ruler of Charax. He declared Babylon a new province of the Empire. A statue was erected on the shore of the Persian Gulf. The statue was torn down by Sassanids in 571 or 572. Susa was apparently occupied by the Romans. No attempt was made to expand into the Iranian Plateau itself. The Roman army had relative weakness in cavalry there. Raids were ordered against Parthian coasts probing into extending suzerainty over mountaineer tribes. These raids aimed at establishing direct contact between Rome and the Kushan Empire.
A sudden outburst of Parthian resistance imperiled Roman positions in Mesopotamia and Armenia. Sanatruces, nephew of the Parthian king, led this revolt. He retained a cavalry force possibly strengthened by Saka archers. Trajan sought to deal with this by forsaking direct rule partially. He sent two armies toward Northern Mesopotamia. One under Lusius Quietus recovered Nisibis and Edessa from rebels. King Abgar was deposed and killed during this process. Another army under Appius Maximus Santra was defeated. Santra himself was killed. Later in 116, Trajan defeated a Parthian army where Sanatruces died. He formally deposed Parthian King Osroes I and put puppet ruler Parthamaspates on the throne. A coin commemorated this event as reduction of Parthia to client kingdom status. It read REX PARTHIS DATUS meaning a king is given to the Parthians. Shortly afterwards Jews in Egypt, Cyprus and Cyrene rose in rebellion. This widespread uprising was later called the Diaspora Revolt. Another rebellion flared among Jewish communities of Northern Mesotamia. Trajan was forced to withdraw his army to put down revolts. He turned eastern armies over to Lusius Quietus who became governor of Judaea. Quietus discharged his commission successfully so the Kitos War in Judaea was named after him. Kitos being a corruption of Quietus.
Trajan's health started to fail him during the campaign. The fortress city of Hatra continued to hold out against repeated Roman assaults. It sat on the Tigris in his rear. He was personally present at the siege. It is possible he suffered heat stroke while in blazing heat. He retreated north to retain what he could of new provinces. An armistice was accepted in exchange for surrendering part of territory to Sanatruces's son Vologeses. Trajan died in 117 before he could renew the war. He never commanded an army in the field again. His death ended any chance of repeating Alexander the Great's conquests. A laurelled letter declared the war at a close when sent by Hadrian. He bemoaned that he was too old to go on further. The statue erected on the Persian Gulf shore was torn down decades later. This event marked the end of active campaigning in the region. No new legions were raised by Trajan before this Parthian campaign. Sources of new citizen recruits had already been overexploited. The overall scarcity of manpower meant the campaign was doomed from start.
Trajan's Parthian campaign is considered climax of two centuries of political posturing and bitter rivalry. He was first emperor to carry out successful invasion of Mesopotamia. His grand schemes were ultimately cut short by circumstances created by incorrect understanding of strategic realities. Insurgency capabilities were underestimated significantly. Cassius Dio attributed motive solely to expansionist dreams. Modern historians debate whether economic motives drove choice or territorial annexation alone. Some view trade between Rome and India as more balanced than previously thought. Pliny the Elder described Gangetic Plains as one gold source for empire. Other scholars reject these motives entirely viewing campaign as triggered by prestige. Emissaries from Kushan Empire attended commemorative ceremonies for Dacian War. These events may have kindled speculative dreams about booty among Greco-Roman intellectuals like Plutarch. One source claimed only 70,000 Roman soldiers necessary to conquer India. A powerful circle of conservative senators from Hispania supported expansionist policy. Sura was all-powerful within group. For Romans their empire unlimited in principle. Trajan simply took advantage opportunity make idea reality coincide. Later Roman wars against Parthia aimed at establishing presence into Parthia itself.
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Common questions
When did Trajan's Parthian campaign take place?
Trajan's Parthian campaign took place from 114 to 117. The Roman emperor decided on the campaign in 113 and marched first on Armenia in 114 before dying in 117.
What were the economic motives behind Trajan's Parthian campaign?
Many modern historians argue that economic motives drove this choice because breaking down trade systems could lower import prices and limit the drain of precious metals. Pliny the Elder described the Gangetic Plains as one of the gold sources for the empire while other scholars reject these motives entirely viewing the campaign as triggered by prestige alone.
Who was Lusius Quietus during Trajan's Parthian campaign?
Lusius Quietus commanded a unit from his native Mauretania during the Dacian Wars and later recovered Nisibis and Edessa from rebels. He became governor of Judaea after Trajan turned eastern armies over to him and discharged his commission successfully so the Kitos War in Judaea was named after him.
Where did Trajan capture Seleucia and Ctesiphon?
Trajan sailed down the Euphrates from Dura-Europos through Ozogardana and dragged his fleet overland into the Tigris where he captured Seleucia. He then took the Parthian capital of Ctesiphon before wintering in Antioch during 115/116.
Why did Trajan die during his Parthian campaign?
Trajan died in 117 before he could renew the war because his health started to fail him during the siege of Hatra. It is possible he suffered heat stroke while in blazing heat and retreated north to retain what he could of new provinces.
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4 references cited across the entry
- 2bookRome's Wars in Parthia: Blood in the SandRose Mary Sheldon — Vallentine Mitchell — 2010