Palmyra

• 1. Origins And Etymology

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  Archaeological finds at Tell ez-Zor date back to the Prepottery Neolithic A period, with a three-unit architectural complex from the Prepottery Neolithic B period. In the Efqa Spring site, stone tools dated to 7500 BC mark an early settlement near the spring that would eventually become Palmyra. Records of the name Tadmor appear in 18th-century BC tablets from Mari written in cuneiform as Ta-ad-mi-ir. Assyrian inscriptions from the 11th century BC record it as Ta-ad-mar. Aramaic Palmyrene inscriptions show two variants: TDMR and TDMWR. The standard interpretation connects the name to the Semitic word for date palm, tamar, referring to the palm trees surrounding the city. Pliny the Elder first recorded the Greek name Palmyra in the first century AD. Linguists debate whether this is a corruption of Tadmor or a translation derived from the Greek word palame meaning palm. An alternative theory by Michael Patrick O'Connor suggests Hurrian origins, deriving Tadmor from tad meaning to love and Palmyra from pal meaning to know.

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• 2. Trade And Prosperity

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  Palmyra grew wealthy from trade caravans connecting Rome and Parthia during the second century. Palmyrene merchants established colonies along the Silk Road and operated throughout the Roman Empire. A trade route built by Palmyrenes was protected by garrisons at major locations including Dura-Europos manned in 117 AD. The Roman conquest of Petra in 106 shifted control over southern trade routes from the Nabataeans to Palmyra. By the end of the second century, urban development peaked before diminishing. Pliny the Elder described the town as famous for its desert location and rich soil. The city became part of the Roman Empire around 14 AD under Emperor Tiberius. Roman authority remained minimal during the first century though tax collectors resided there. A road connecting Palmyra and Sura was built in AD 75. Palmyrene soldiers were used by Rome but no local magistrates are recorded in early inscriptions. The earliest known inscription in Palmyrene dates to around 44 BC when the city offered water to caravans taking the desert route.

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• 3. Architecture And Art

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  The Temple of Bel was dedicated in AD 32 with a large precinct lined by porticos. Its exterior wall stretched long with a propylaea and cella stood on a podium in the middle of the enclosure. The Temple of Baalshamin dates to the late 2nd century BC with an altar built in AD 115. It consisted of a central cella and two colonnaded courtyards north and south of the structure. A vestibule of six columns preceded the cella which had side walls decorated with pilasters in Corinthian order. Tower tombs up to four stories high formed the Valley of Tombs west of ancient walls. More than 50 monuments were primarily tower-shaped until replaced by funerary temples in the first half of the second century AD. The last tower is dated to AD 128. Bust reliefs seal openings of burial chambers emphasizing clothing, jewelry and frontal representation. These characteristics serve as forerunners of Byzantine art according to Michael Rostovtzeff. The Great Colonnade extended from the Temple of Bel to Funerary Temple no.86 with most columns dating to the second century AD. Each column stands high though many have been reconstructed using concrete since 1963.

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• 4. The Zenobia Rebellion

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  Odaenathus declared himself king prior to the battle against Shapur I later in 260. He won a decisive victory near the banks of the Euphrates forcing Persians to retreat. In 261 Odaenathus marched against remaining usurpers killing Quietus and Balista. As reward he received title Imperator Totius Orientis ruling Syria Mesopotamia Arabia and Anatolia's eastern regions. Odaenathus assumed King of Kings title after reclaiming Roman Mesopotamia including Nisibis and Carrhae. He and his son Hairan I were assassinated during return in 267. Zenobia became de facto ruler when her ten-year-old son Vaballathus succeeded him. She conquered Roman Arabia in spring 270 under pretext of attacking Tanukhids. October brought invasion of Egypt ending with Palmyrene victory and Zenobia proclamation as queen of Egypt. Palmyra invaded Anatolia reaching Ankara and pinnacle of expansion following year. Vaballathus and mother assumed titles Augustus and Augusta in late 271. Aurelian defeated Zenobia at Battle of Immae then Emesa before besieging capital. She escaped east seeking Persian help but was captured by Romans. City capitulated soon afterwards.

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• 5. Religious Evolution

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  Palmyrenes worshiped local Semitic Mesopotopian and Arab deities throughout classical period. The Temple of Bel sanctuary plan preserved elements of temples from Ebla and Ugarit. A giant lion relief called Lion of Al-lāt was excavated inside compound originally protruding from temple wall. During Umayyad Caliphate the city became part of Homs Province and population grew. Large souq market built by Umayyads included part of Temple of Bel converted to mosque. By fourth century Palmyra became Christian city decades after destruction by Aurelian. Greek replaced by Arabic after seventh-century Rashidun Caliphate conquest. Benjamin of Tudela recorded existence of 2000 Jews in twelfth century. Elephantine Jews diaspora community established between 650 and 550 BC might have originated from Palmyra. Papyrus Amherst 63 refers to fortress of palms near spring on trade route making Palmyra plausible candidate for their ancestors. The Hebrew Bible mentions Tadmor as desert city built by King Solomon though biblical description does not fit archaeological findings.

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• 6. Modern Destruction And War

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  On the 23rd of May 2015 Islamic State militants destroyed Lion of Al-lāt and other statues despite promising citizens they would not destroy monuments. IS destroyed Temple of Baalshamin on the 23rd of August 2015. On the 30th of August 2015 IS destroyed cella of Temple of Bel though exterior walls and entrance arch remain. United Nations confirmed temple destruction on the 31st of August 2015. News emerged the 4th of September 2015 that IS had destroyed three best preserved tower tombs including Tower of Elahbel. On the 5th of October 2015 media reported IS destroying buildings without religious meaning including monumental arch. On the 20th of January 2017 militants destroyed tetrapylon and part of theater. Syrian Army captured Palmyra the 2nd of March 2017 after heavy fighting. Maamoun Abdulkarim stated damage may be lesser than earlier believed with preliminary pictures showing almost no further damage. Tetrapylon badly damaged while Roman theatre facade less serious. On the 7th of December 2024 Palmyra retaken by Syrian Free Army following fall of Assad government. Heavy damage recorded since then.

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