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Palmyra

Ch. 1 of 8
— CH. 1 · INTRODUCTION —

Contents

Palmyra

8 sections

  • Palmyra rises from the Syrian Desert like a riddle carved in stone. Positioned 215 km northeast of Damascus, this ancient city guarded one of the most lucrative crossroads in the ancient world, where the civilizations of the Mediterranean met the empires of the East. Its merchants spoke Aramaic at home, Greek in the marketplace, and buried their dead in elaborate tower tombs that still stand against the desert sky. How did a small oasis settlement become one of the Roman Empire's most powerful allies, and then its most dangerous rebel? And how does a city that survived emperors, caliphs, and conquerors end up facing dynamite in the twenty-first century? The story of Palmyra is really the story of what happens when a crossroads becomes a kingdom.

  • Tablets discovered at Mari, dating to the 18th century BC, record the name of the settlement as "Ta-ad-mi-ir", written in cuneiform. Assyrian inscriptions from the 11th century BC call it "Ta-ad-mar". The people who actually lived there used two versions themselves: TDMR and TDMWR, or Tadmar and Tadmor. The city had, in other words, been arguing about its own name for more than a thousand years before the Greeks arrived.

    Pliny the Elder was the first to record the Greek form, Palmyra, in the first century AD. The connection to the Latin word palma, meaning date palm, seemed obvious and tidy. But linguists have never fully agreed on how Tadmor became Palmyra. Albert Schultens proposed that Palmyra was a corruption of Tadmor, travelling through an unattested middle form "Talmura" before shifting under the influence of the Latin word for palm. The philologist Jean Starcky favored a different route entirely: that Palmyra was a straightforward translation of Tadmor, assuming that Tadmor already meant palm, derived from the Greek word palame.

    A third possibility, favored by Franz Altheim and Ruth Altheim-Stiehl in 1973, ties the name to the Syriac word tedmurta, meaning "miracle" or "object of wonder." Starcky and the archaeologist Michael Gawlikowski both rejected that reading, and the debate has never been settled. Michael Patrick O'Connor offered a fourth avenue in 1988, suggesting that both names originated in the Hurrian language entirely, with Tadmor deriving from the Hurrian word tad meaning "to love," and Palmyra from the word pal meaning "to know." The oasis city, depending on your theory, was a palm grove, an object of wonder, a thing loved, or a thing known.

  • The earliest evidence of human activity near Palmyra reaches back to Paleolithic settlements. Stone tools found at the Efqa spring site are dated to 7500 BC. A mud-brick structure excavated beneath the Temple of Bel was built around 2500 BC. The city formally entered written history around 2000 BC, when a man named Puzur-Ishtar the Tadmorean agreed to a contract at an Assyrian trading colony in Kultepe.

    The Mari tablets, written a few centuries later, describe Palmyra as a stop for trade caravans and nomadic tribes including the Suteans. King Yahdun-Lim of Mari conquered the city and its region. King Shamshi-Adad I of Assyria passed through in the early 18th century BC while marching to the Mediterranean. By that point, Palmyra sat at the eastern edge of the kingdom of Qatna, wedged between competing powers and periodically disrupted by Sutean raiders who paralyzed the caravan routes.

    The Hebrew Bible records a city called Tadmor as a desert city built or fortified by King Solomon of Israel, a claim repeated by Flavius Josephus in his Antiquities of the Jews. Later Arabic traditions attributed the founding to Solomon's Jinn. Scholars have concluded, however, that this is a conflation of Tadmor with a different city called Tamar that Solomon built in Judea. Archaeological evidence from Palmyra itself shows only a small settlement during the 10th century BC when Solomon would have reigned. The legend stuck nonetheless, becoming part of the city's long habit of accumulating identities it didn't strictly earn.

  • When the Roman Republic absorbed the Seleucid kingdom in 64 BC and established the province of Syria, Palmyra was left deliberately outside the new arrangement, trading with both Rome and Parthia while belonging to neither. The earliest known inscription in Palmyrene dates to around 44 BC. Even then, the city was described as a minor sheikhdom that sold water to passing caravans. Within a century it would dominate the Silk Road.

    Palmyra came fully under Roman control during the reign of Tiberius, around 14 AD. Roman authority in the first century was minimal. Tax collectors were present, and a road connecting Palmyra to Sura was built in 75 AD, but no local Roman magistrates or prefects were ever recorded in the city. The Romans needed Palmyrene trade more than they needed Palmyrene obedience.

    The trading empire that grew from this arrangement was built on two pillars. The first was a network of caravan routes built and garrisoned by the Palmyrenes themselves, including a garrison at Dura-Europos manned in 117 AD. The second was the Roman conquest of the Nabataean capital Petra in 106, which stripped control of the southern Arabian trade routes from the Nabataeans and redirected it through Palmyra. By the second century, Palmyrene merchants had planted colonies across the Roman Empire and along the Silk Road. A Nabataean cavalryman is recorded in 132 as serving in a Palmyrene military unit stationed at Anah, suggesting the reach of Palmyrene military organization even at a distance.

    The emperor Hadrian visited in 129, renamed the city "Hadriane Palmyra," and declared it a free city. New construction followed: the theatre, the Great Colonnade, and the Temple of Nabu. The 1.1 km Colonnade, lined with columns each 9.50 m high, became the commercial spine of the city. The Great Agora, a massive 71 by 84 m structure with 11 entrances, held 200 columnar bases for statues of prominent citizens. The eastern side was reserved for senators, the northern side for Palmyrene officials, the western side for soldiers, and the southern side for caravan chiefs.

  • An inscription dated to 252 AD names Odaenathus bearing the title of exarchos, or lord, of Palmyra. The Sasanian Empire had been dismantling Palmyrene commercial colonies in Persia, and the Roman Empire was faltering badly. Odaenathus approached the Persian king Shapur I to negotiate guarantees for Palmyrene interests, but Shapur refused even to meet with him.

    The crisis came to a head in 260, when Emperor Valerian fought Shapur at the Battle of Edessa and was defeated and captured, the only time a sitting Roman emperor had been taken prisoner. In the chaos that followed, a Roman officer named Macrianus Major and his sons Quietus and Macrianus seized imperial power in Syria, challenging the legitimate succession. Odaenathus assembled an army of Palmyrenes and Syrian peasants and struck back. The Augustan History records that Odaenathus declared himself king before the battle. He drove Shapur's retreating forces to the banks of the Euphrates and routed them.

    The following year, 261, Odaenathus turned on the usurpers in Syria, defeating and killing both Quietus and their prefect Balista. The emperor Gallienus rewarded him with the title Imperator Totius Orientis, Governor of the East, granting him authority over Syria, Mesopotamia, Arabia, and Anatolia's eastern regions. Palmyrene inscriptions began calling the city a "metrocolonia," a rank above ordinary Roman colonias.

    Odaenathus pressed further. In 262 he invaded Mesopotamia, recovering the key cities of Nisibis and Carrhae, and besieged the Persian capital Ctesiphon. He assumed the title King of Kings and crowned his son Hairan I as co-King near Antioch in 263. A second campaign in 266 again reached Ctesiphon before Gothic attacks on Asia Minor forced him north. On the return journey in 267, Odaenathus and Hairan I were assassinated; according to the Augustan History and the historian Joannes Zonaras, the killer was a cousin or nephew named Maeonius, who was briefly proclaimed emperor before being killed by his own soldiers.

  • Odaenathus was succeeded by his young son Vaballathus, who was ten years old. His mother Zenobia became the de facto ruler. She moved carefully at first, claiming only the titles her husband had held and securing the frontier with Persia, including fortifying citadels at Halabiye and Zalabiye on the Euphrates. When Gallienus dispatched his prefect Heraclian to manage Persian operations, Zenobia sidelined him entirely and sent him back to Rome.

    In the spring of 270, under the reign of Claudius Gothicus, Zenobia launched her military campaign. Using an attack on the Tanukhid tribes as a pretext, she seized Roman Arabia. That October, she invaded Egypt, won the province, and had herself proclaimed queen of Egypt. In 271 Palmyrene forces pushed through Anatolia all the way to Ankara. She issued coins in the name of Claudius' successor Aurelian, depicting Vaballathus as king, framing the expansion as loyalty while absorbing Roman territory. Aurelian, occupied with insurgencies in Europe, tolerated the arrangement for a time. In late 271, Zenobia and Vaballathus dropped the pretense and assumed the full titles of Augusta and Augustus.

    Aurelian crossed the Bosphorus the following year and moved quickly. Roman forces under Marcus Aurelius Probus retook Egypt. Aurelian himself entered Issus, advanced to Antioch, and defeated Zenobia at the Battle of Immae. She was defeated again at the Battle of Emesa, fell back to Homs, then made for her capital. When the Romans besieged Palmyra, Zenobia refused to surrender personally to the emperor. She fled east to seek Persian aid but was captured by Roman soldiers. The city then capitulated. Zenobia, commander of an army of 70,000 at the Battle of Emesa, ended the war as a Roman prisoner.

  • Aurelian initially spared the city, leaving a garrison of 600 archers under a commander named Sandarion. In 273 the city rebelled under Septimius Apsaios, who declared a relative of Zenobia's named Antiochus as Augustus. Aurelian returned and razed Palmyra to the ground. He seized the most valuable monuments to decorate his Temple of Sol in Rome. Buildings were smashed, residents massacred, and the Temple of Bel pillaged. The city that had been a metrocolonia was reduced to a small garrison post.

    Partial recovery came under Diocletian. A 4 ha military camp, the Camp of Diocletian, was built shortly before 303 as a base for the Legio I Illyricorum. The Baths of Diocletian were renovated. Palmyra became a Christian city in the decades after Aurelian's destruction, and the emperor Justinian I further strengthened it in late 527, ordering restoration of churches and public buildings to guard against raids by the Lakhmid king Al-Mundhir III ibn al-Nu'man.

    The city fell to the Rashidun Caliphate in 634, taken by the general Khalid ibn al-Walid after an 18-day march across the Syrian Desert from Mesopotamia. Palmyra prospered again under the Umayyad Caliphate, recovering its role as a node on the East-West trade route and growing a significant merchant class. The Banu Kalb tribe dominated the city, and in 744, after backing the losing side in a caliphate civil war, the city's walls were demolished on the orders of the caliph Marwan II. The Abbasid succession brought further punishment. Palmyra was destroyed by Timur in 1400, leaving a village of roughly 6,000 people at the start of the 20th century. In 1929, the French excavator Henri Seyrig began systematic archaeological work, eventually convincing the residents to relocate to a new planned village. That relocation was completed in 1932, and the ancient site was fully opened to excavation.

  • On the 23rd of May 2015, Islamic State militants destroyed the Lion of Al-lāt and other statues, days after publicly promising the city's residents they would leave the monuments alone. The Temple of Baalshamin was destroyed on the 23rd of August 2015. The cella of the Temple of Bel was destroyed on the 30th of August. The United Nations confirmed the destruction the following day. On the 4th of September 2015, three of the best-preserved tower tombs, including the Tower of Elahbel, were destroyed. The Arch of Triumph, one of the city's monumental monuments, was brought down with dynamite. On the 20th of January 2017, the tetrapylon and part of the Roman theatre were destroyed.

    On the 18th of August 2015, Palmyra's retired antiquities chief Khaled al-Asaad was beheaded after a month of torture; he had refused to tell his captors where the city's treasures were hidden. Syrian government forces, backed by Russian airstrikes, retook the city on the 27th of March 2016. ISIL briefly reoccupied it on the 11th of December 2016. The Syrian Army recaptured it a final time on the 2nd of March 2017. On the 7th of December 2024, Palmyra was taken by the Syrian Free Army following the fall of the Assad government.

    Response to the destruction came from around the world. On the 21st of October 2015, Creative Commons launched the New Palmyra project, building a public-domain archive of three-dimensional models of the city's monuments, based on images gathered by the Syrian internet advocate Bassel Khartabil between 2005 and 2012. The archaeologist and discoverer of Ebla, Paolo Matthiae, assessed the damage and concluded that 20-30% of the site was seriously affected, and that by using both traditional and advanced restoration methods, it might be possible to recover 98% of the site. By May 2023, the first phase of reconstruction of the Arch of Triumph was completed. The Lion of Al-lāt, restored over two months, was put on display on the 1st of October 2017 and sent to the National Museum of Damascus.

Updated

Common questions

Where is Palmyra located and what is its modern name?

Palmyra is an ancient city in central Syria, located 215 km northeast of Damascus in an oasis on the edge of the Syrian Desert. Its ancient Semitic name, Tadmor, is also the name of the modern village that sits adjacent to the archaeological site; residents were relocated there in 1932 during the French Mandate period.

Who was Queen Zenobia of Palmyra and what did she conquer?

Zenobia was the queen regent of Palmyra who ruled as de facto leader after her husband Odaenathus was assassinated in 267 AD. She conquered Roman Arabia in 270, invaded and won Egypt that same year, and pushed Palmyrene forces through Anatolia as far as Ankara by 271. Roman emperor Aurelian defeated her at the Battle of Immae and again at the Battle of Emesa, capturing her after she fled toward Persia.

What did ISIS destroy in Palmyra in 2015 and 2016?

Islamic State militants destroyed the Temple of Baalshamin on the 23rd of August 2015, the cella of the Temple of Bel on the 30th of August 2015, three major tower tombs including the Tower of Elahbel on the 4th of September 2015, and the Arch of Triumph using dynamite in October 2015. In January 2017 they destroyed the tetrapylon and part of the Roman theatre. The antiquities chief Khaled al-Asaad was beheaded on the 18th of August 2015 after refusing to reveal where the city's treasures were hidden.

Who was Odaenathus and why is he significant in Palmyra's history?

Odaenathus was a Palmyrene leader who held the title of exarchos of Palmyra from at least 252 AD. After the Roman emperor Valerian was captured by the Persians at the Battle of Edessa in 260, Odaenathus assembled an army and defeated the Persians near the Euphrates, drove them from Roman Mesopotamia, and twice besieged the Persian capital Ctesiphon. The emperor Gallienus awarded him the title Imperator Totius Orientis and he assumed the title King of Kings. He was assassinated in 267 along with his son Hairan I.

What languages did the people of Palmyra speak?

Palmyrenes spoke Palmyrene Aramaic, a variety of Western Middle Aramaic, as their primary language and used a distinctive Palmyrene alphabet until the late third century AD. Wealthier inhabitants used Koine Greek for commercial and diplomatic purposes, and Greek became dominant during the Byzantine era. After the Arab conquest in the seventh century, Arabic replaced Greek, and a local Palmyrene dialect of Arabic eventually evolved.

How did Palmyra become a wealthy trading city in the Roman Empire?

Palmyra's trade wealth grew through two developments in the first and second centuries AD. Palmyrene merchants built and garrisoned their own caravan routes, including a garrison at Dura-Europos manned in 117 AD. Rome's conquest of the Nabataean capital Petra in 106 AD shifted control of the Arabian Peninsula's southern trade routes away from the Nabataeans and directed them through Palmyra. The city established merchant colonies along the Silk Road and throughout the Roman Empire.

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  115. 115BookBughyat al-ṭalab fī tārīkh ḤalabKamāl al-Dīn ʻUmar ibn Aḥmad Ibn al-ʻAdīm — Dār al-Fikr (دار الفكر) — 1988
  116. 116BookTārīkh DimashqAbū Yaʻlā Ḥamzah ibn Asad ibn ʻAlī ibn Muḥammad al-Tamīmī Ibn al-Qalanisi — Dār Ḥassān — 1983
  117. 117BookʻAjāʼib al-maqdūr fī nawāʼib TīmūrAhmad ibn Muhammad Ibn Arabshah — Muʼassasat al-Risālah — 1986
  118. 118BookTarikh Madinat Dimashiq (تاريخ مدينة دمشق)Ali ibn al-Hasan ibn Hibat Allah ibn 'Abd Allah, Thiqat al-Din, Abu al-Qasim Ibn 'Asakir — Dār al-Fikr (دار الفكر) — 1995
  119. 119BookRiḥlat Ibn Baṭūṭah al-musammāh Tuḥfat al-nuẓẓār fī gharāʼib al-amṣār wa-ʻajāʼib al-asfārMuhammad Ibn Battuta — Akādīmīyat al-Mamlakah al-Maghribīyah — 1997
  120. 120BookMuqaddima (al-ʻibar wa-dīwān al-mubtadaʼ wa-al-khabar f̣ī ayyām al-ʻArab wa-al-ʻAjam ẉa-al-Barbar wa-man ʻāṣarahum min dhawī al-sulṭān al-al-akbar wa-huwa tarīkh waḥīd ʻaṣrih)ʻAbd al-Raḥmān Ibn Khaldūn — Dār al-Fikr (دار الفكر) — 1988
  121. 121BookVita et res gestae sultani Almalichi Alnasiri SaladiniBahā' ad-Dīn Yūsuf Ibn-Rāfiʿ Ibn Šaddād — Samuel Luchtmans — 1732
  122. 122BookPalmyra after Zenobia AD 273–750: An Archaeological and Historical ReappraisalEmanuele E. Intagliata — Oxbow Books — 2018
  123. 123BookTexts, Documents, and Artefacts: Islamic Studies in Honour of D.S. RichardsRobert Irwin — Brill — 2003
  124. 124BookThe Syrian Djezireh: Cultural Heritage and Interrelations. International Colloquium: Deir ez-Zor, April 22–25, 1996Farouk Ismail — Dimashq: Wizārat al-Thaqāfah, al-Mudīrīyah al-ʻĀmmah lil-Āthār wa-al-Matāḥif — 2002
  125. 125JournalThe Remains of Palmyra, the City of Caravans, and an Estimation of the City's Ancient EnvironmentTakura Izumi — Research Center for Silk Roadology — 1995
  126. 126Isis's destruction of Palmyra: 'The heart has been ripped out of the city'Stuart Jeffries — 2 September 2015
  127. 127JournalLate Roman fortifications in PalmyraKarol Juchniewicz — Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology, University of Warsaw — 2013
  128. 128BookImaginary Kings: Royal Images in the Ancient Near East, Greece and RomeTed Kaizer — Franz Steiner Verlag — 2005
  129. 129BookHellenism and the Local Communities of the Eastern Mediterranean: 400 BCE–250 CETed Kaizer — Oxford University Press — 2017
  130. 130A Report on the Initial Observations of the Current State of Palmyra’s Antiquities After LiberationAmmar Kannawi — Syrians for Heritage — 2 January 2025
  131. 131BookRome's Desert FrontiersDavid Kennedy et al. — Routledge — 2004
  132. 132BookThe Byzantine and Early Islamic Near EastHugh N. Kennedy — Ashgate Publishing — 2006
  133. 133BookThe Pictorial Bible – being the Old and New Testaments according to authorized versionsJohn Kitto — Charles Knight & Co — 1837
  134. 134JournalHistory of Construction, Study and Restoration of the Triumphal Arch of PalmyraOleg Arnoldovich Kuzevanov et al. — Russian Academy of Sciences — 2022
  135. 135BookProceedings & Report of the Conference "Saving the Syrian Cultural Heritage for the Next Generation: Palmyra, a Message from Nara", July 11-14, 2017Maria Concetta Laurenti et al. — Executive Committee of the Silk Road Friendship Project: Archaeological Institute of Kashihara, Nara Prefecture — 2018
  136. 136BookPalestine under the Moslems, a description of Syria and the Holy Land from A.D. 650 to 1500. Translated from the works of the medieval Arab geographersGuy Le Strange — Houghton, Mifflin and Co — 1890
  137. 137BookJulia Domna: Syrian EmpressBarbara Levick — Routledge — 2007
  138. 138BookLa Toponymie Antique (actes du colloque de Strasbourg, 12–14 juin 1975)Henri Limet — Brill — 1977
  139. 139BookThe Ancient Near East: History, Society and EconomyMario Liverani — Routledge — 2013
  140. 140BookThe Eastern Roman EmpireHerbert Martin James Loewe — Cambridge University Press — 1923
  141. 141BookThe Syro-Aramaic Reading of the Koran: A Contribution to the Decoding of the Language of the KoranChristoph Luxenberg — Verlag Hans Schiler — 2007
  142. 142BookThe Archaeology of Afghanistan from Earliest Times to the Timurid PeriodDavid w. MacDowall et al. — Academic Press — 1978
  143. 143BookAncient Rome: A Military and Political HistoryChristopher S. Mackay — Cambridge University Press — 2004
  144. 144Palmyra: Will ISIS bulldoze ancient Syrian city?Mairi Mackay — CNN — 18 May 2015
  145. 145JournalPolish Archaeological Mission to Palmyra. Seasons 2008 and 2009Grzegorz Majcherek — Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology, University of Warsaw — 2012
  146. 146JournalExcavating the basilicasGrzegorz Majcherek — Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology, University of Warsaw — 2013
  147. 147BookThe Crusades and the Military Orders: Expanding the Frontiers of Medieval Latin ChristianityBalázs Major — Central European University Press — 2001
  148. 148Islamic State militants blow up ancient Arch of Triumph in PalmyraKinda Makieh — Reuters — 4 October 2015
  149. 149Palmyra's dynamited temple can be restored, de-miners use robotsKinda Makieh — Reuters — 2 April 2016
  150. 150Palmyra statue damaged by Islamic State goes on display in DamascusKinda Makieh et al. — Reuters — 1 October 2017
  151. 151Expert says Islamic State has badly damaged major Palmyra monumentFiras Maqdisi — Reuters — 5 March 2017
  152. 152JournalThe Lion of Allat in Palmyra New Museum Display ProjectBartosz Markowski — Warsaw University Press — 2005
  153. 153BookLiteracy and Identity in Pre-Islamic ArabiaMichael C. A. Macdonald — Ashgate Variorum — 2009
  154. 154Syrians Race to Save Ancient City's Treasures from ISISTim McGirk — National Geographic News — 10 July 2015
  155. 155BookRome and the Distant East: Trade Routes to the ancient lands of Arabia, India and ChinaRaoul McLaughlin — Continuum International Publishing Group — 2010
  156. 156BookThe Greek Discovery of PoliticsChristian Meier — Harvard University Press — 1990
  157. 157BookPower and Status in the Roman Empire, AD 193–284Inge Mennen — Brill — 2011
  158. 158BookThe Transformation of Nomadic Society in the Arab EastFrancoise Métral — Cambridge University Press — 2000
  159. 159JournalCity and Hinterland. Villages and Estates North of Palmyra. New PerspectivesJørgen Christian Meyer — Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology, University of Warsaw — 2013
  160. 160BookPalmyrena: Palmyra and the Surrounding Territory from the Roman to the Early Islamic PeriodJørgen Christian Meyer — Archaeopress Publishing — 2017a
  161. 161BookPalmyra: Mirage in the DesertJørgen Christian Meyer — Metropolitan Museum of Art — 2017b
  162. 162BookThe Roman Near East, 31 B.C.–A.D. 337Fergus Millar — Harvard University Press — 1993
  163. 163BookThe Greek World, the Jews & the EastFergus Millar — University of North Carolina Press — 2006
  164. 164BookFrom Rome to Constantinople: Studies in Honour of Averil CameronFergus Millar — Peeters Publishers — 2007
  165. 165BookSyria and the USA: Washington's Relations with Damascus from Wilson to EisenhowerSami Moubayed — I.B.Tauris — 2012
  166. 166BookStudies in Aramaic Edicts of AśokaBratindra Nath Mukherjee — Kolkata: Indian Museum — 2000
  167. 167BookHebrew in its West Semitic Setting. A Comparative Survey of Non-Masoretic Hebrew Dialects and Traditions. Part 1. A Comparative LexiconAimo Edvard Murtonen — Brill — 1986
  168. 168Journal(ET=EtudTrav/50) x 30Karol Myśliwiec — The Institute of Mediterranean and Oriental Cultures of the Polish Academy of Sciences — 2018
  169. 169BookOccupying Syria Under the French Mandate: Insurgency, Space and State FormationDaniel Neep — Cambridge University Press — 2012
  170. 170BookA Linguistic Happening in Memory of Ben Schwartz: Studies in Anatolian, Italic, and Other Indo-European LanguagesMichael Patrick O'Connor — Peeters Publishers — 1988
  171. 171Isis in Syria: Militants 'severely damage' ancient Bel Temple in Palmyra using explosivesRoisin O'Connor — 30 August 2015
  172. 172John Punnett Peters
  173. 173BookDictionary of Islamic ArchitectureAndrew Petersen — Routledge — 1996
  174. 174JournalViolins and Trowels for Palmyra: Post-Conflict Heritage PoliticsGertjan Plets — Royal Anthropological Institute — 2017
  175. 175BookSoldiers, Cities, and Civilians in Roman SyriaNigel Pollard — University of Michigan Press — 2000
  176. 176BookA Companion to the Roman EmpireDavid S. Potter — Blackwell Publishing — 2010
  177. 177BookThe World of Rome: An Introduction to Roman CultureNicholas Purcell — Cambridge University Press — 1997
  178. 178Bookal-Thawrah al-mansīyahZubayr Sulṭān Qaddūrī — Ittiḥād al-Kuttāb al-ʻArab — 2000
  179. 179Bookal-Mawsūʻah al-ʻArabīyahʻAdnān Qīṭāz — al-Jumhūrīyah al-ʻArabīyah al-Sūrīyah, Riʼāsat al-Jumhūrīyah, Hayʼat al-Mawsūʻah al-ʻArabīyah — 2007
  180. 180BookUrban Development and Regional Identity in the Eastern Roman Provinces, 50 BC-AD 250: Aphrodisias, Ephesos, Athens, GerasaRubina Raja — Museum Tusculanum Press — 2012
  181. 181JournalPalmyra: At the Crossroads of the Ancient WorldRubina Raja — Springer — 2025
  182. 182BookGeschichte und Kultur Roms im Spiegel der neueren Forschung, II PrincipatManfred G. Raschke — De Gruyter — 1978
  183. 183BookCities of the Middle East and North Africa: A Historical EncyclopediaSimone Ricca — ABC-CLIO — 2007
  184. 184BookCity and Sanctuary: Religion and Architecture in the Roman Near EastPeter Richardson — SCM Press — 2002
  185. 185BookBaalbek, PalmyraDavid M Robinson — J.J. Augustin — 1946
  186. 186BookClassical Sculpture: Catalogue of the Cypriot, Greek, and Roman Stone Sculpture in the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and AnthropologyIrene Bald Romano — University of Pennsylvania Press — 2006
  187. 187JournalThe Second Laghmân InscriptionFranz Rosenthal — Israel Exploration Society — 1978
  188. 188JournalSeleucid Babylonia : Bullae and Seals of Clay with Greek InscriptionsMichael Ivanovitch Rostovtzeff. — Yale University Press — 1932
  189. 189BookOut of the Past of Greece & RomeMichael Ivanovitch Rostovtzeff — Biblo & Tannen Publishers — 1971
  190. 190BookCaravan CitiesMichael Ivanovitch Rostovtzeff — The Clarendon Press — 1932
  191. 191BookThe Aramaeans in Ancient SyriaHélène Sader — Brill — 2014
  192. 192BookThe Crisis of Empire, AD 193–337Maurice Sartre — Cambridge University Press — 2005
  193. 193BookThe Oxford Handbook of PalmyraAnnie Sartre-Fauriat — Oxford University Press — 2024
  194. 194Isis in Palmyra: Civilians forced to watch execution of 20 men at amphitheatreHeather Saul — 28 May 2015
  195. 195JournalBornes frontières de la PalmyrèneDaniel Schlumberger — l'Institut Français du Proche-Orient — 1939
  196. 196BookThe Early Roman Empire in the EastAndreas Schmidt-Colinet — Oxbow Books — 1997
  197. 197JournalNo Temple in Palmyra! Opposing the Reconstruction of the Temple of BelAndreas Schmidt-Colinet — University of St Andrews — 2019
  198. 198BookRemote Sensing for Archaeology and Cultural Landscapes. Best Practices and Perspectives Across Europe and the Middle EastAndreas Schmidt-Colinet — Springer — 2020
  199. 199JournalNetworks and Social Cohesion in Ancient Indian Ocean Trade: Geography, Ethnicity, ReligionEivind Heldaas Seland — Cambridge University Press — 2013
  200. 200JournalAntiquités Syriennes 29: A propos du culte de Zeus à SéleucieHenri Seyrig — Institut français du Proche-Orient — 1939
  201. 201JournalAntiquités Syriennes 76: Caractères de l'histoire d'ÉmèseHenri Seyrig — l'Institut Français du Proche-Orient — 1959
  202. 202Palmyra – what the world has lostKareem Shaheen et al. — 5 October 2015
  203. 203Palmyra: historic Syrian city falls under control of IsisKareem Shaheen — 21 May 2015
  204. 204Isis destroys tetrapylon monument in PalmyraKareem Shaheen — 20 January 2017
  205. 205BookRome and the Arabs: A Prolegomenon to the Study of Byzantium and the ArabsIrfan Shahîd — Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection — 1984
  206. 206BookByzantium and the Arabs in the Sixth Century (Part1: Political and Military History)Irfan Shahîd — Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection — 1995
  207. 207BookByzantium and the Arabs in the Sixth Century (Part1: Toponymy, Monuments, Historical Geography, and Frontier Studies)Irfan Shahîd — Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection — 2002
  208. 208BookThe Red Land: The Illustrated Archaeology of Egypt's Eastern DesertSteven E. Sidebotham et al. — American University in Cairo Press — 2008
  209. 209BookPrivate Households and Public Politics in 3rd–5th Century Jewish PalestineAlexei Sivertsev — Mohr Siebeck — 2002
  210. 210JournalUrsu and ḪaššumSidney Smith — Cambridge University Press on Behalf of the British Institute of Archaeology at Ankara — 1956
  211. 211BookRoman Palmyra: Identity, Community, and State FormationAndrew M. Smith II — Oxford University Press — 2013
  212. 213BookPalmyra: a HistoryMichael Sommer — Routledge — 2018
  213. 214BookEmpress Zenobia: Palmyra's Rebel QueenPatricia Southern — Continuum International Publishing Group — 2008
  214. 215BookInternational Dictionary of Historic PlacesGraham Speake — Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers — 1996
  215. 216BookPalmyra and Its Empire: Zenobia's Revolt Against RomeRichard Stoneman — University of Michigan Press — 1994
  216. 217BookRoman ArtDonald Emrys Strong — Yale University Press — 1995
  217. 218BookThe Pantheon of PalmyraJavier Teixidor — Brill — 1979
  218. 219BookA Journey to Palmyra: Collected Essays to Remember Delbert R. HillersJavier Teixidor — Brill — 2005
  219. 220Museum of Lost Objects: The Temple of BelKanishk Tharoor et al. — BBC News — 1 March 2016
  220. 221BookFrom Mycenae to Constantinople: The Evolution of the Ancient CityRichard A. Tomlinson — Routledge — 2003
  221. 222BookA History of Roman ArtSteven L. Tuck — John Wiley & Sons — 2015
  222. 223Director-General of UNESCO Irina Bokova firmly condemns the destruction of Palmyra's ancient temple of Baalshamin, SyriaUnesco — Unesco — 24 August 2015
  223. 224UNESCO World Heritage Committee. Convention for the Protection of the Cultural and Natural World Heritage. Intergovernmental Committee for the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage. Forty-Eighth Session, Busan, Republic of Korea 19-29 July 2026. Item 7A of the Provisional Agenda: State of Conservation of the Properties Inscribed on the List of World Heritage in DangerUNESCO World Heritage Committee — UNESCO — 5 June 2026
  224. 225BookBecoming Diaspora Jews: Behind the Story of ElephantineKarel van der Toorn — Yale University Press — 2019
  225. 226JournalQaṭna in altsyrischer ZeitFrans van Koppen — Harrassowitz Verlag — 2015
  226. 227BookInternational Dictionary of Historic PlacesAruna Vasudevan — Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers — 1995
  227. 228BookPalmyra: An Irreplaceable TreasurePaul Veyne — The University of Chicago Press — 2017
  228. 229BookStruggles of Gods: Papers of the Groningen Work Group for the Study of the History of ReligionsJacques Waardenburg — Walter de Gruyter — 1984
  229. 230BookIslam: Historical, Social, and Political PerspectivesJean Jacques Waardenburg — Walter de Gruyter — 2002
  230. 231BookArchitects and Intellectual Culture in Post-Restoration EnglandMatthew Walker — Oxford University Press — 2017
  231. 232BookAurelian and the Third CenturyAlaric Watson — Routledge — 2004
  232. 233BookTricolor and Crescent: France and the Islamic WorldWilliam E. Watson — Praeger Publishers — 2003
  233. 234BookA Companion to the Roman ArmyEverett L Wheeler — Wiley-Blackwell — 2011
  234. 235BookThe formation of the Islamic World. Sixth to Eleventh CenturiesMark Whittow — Cambridge University Press — 2010
  235. 236NewsIsil retakes historic city of PalmyraSara Elizabeth Williams — 11 December 2016
  236. 237BookThe Shiites of Lebanon under Ottoman Rule, 1516–1788Stefan Winter — Cambridge University Press — 2010
  237. 238BookAleppo and its Hinterland in the Ottoman Period / Alep et sa province à l'époque ottomaneStefan Winter — Brill — 2019
  238. 239Isis executes Palmyra antiquities chief and hangs him from ruins he spent a lifetime restoringAdam Withnall — 19 August 2015
  239. 240Bookتاريخ اللغات السامية (History of Semitic Languages)Israel Wolfensohn — دار القلم للطباعة و النشر و التوزيع — 2016
  240. 241BookThe ruins of Palmyra, otherwise Tedmor, in the desartRobert Wood — London, Robert Wood — 1753
  241. 242BookReligions of the Ancient World: A GuideDavid P. Wright — Harvard University Press — 2004
  242. 243BookThe Persian Presence in the Islamic WorldEhsan Yarshater — Cambridge University Press — 1998
  243. 244BookLes notables de PalmyreJean-Baptiste Yon — l'Institut français d'archéologie du Proche-Orient — 2002
  244. 245BookRome's Eastern Trade: International Commerce and Imperial Policy 31 BC – AD 305Gary K. Young — Routledge — 2003
  245. 246BookZenobia between Reality and LegendYasamin Zahran — Archaeopress — 2003
  246. 247BookProceedings of the 4th International Congress of the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East, 29 March – 3 April 2004, Freie Universität BerlinMarta Zuchowska — Otto Harrassowitz Verlag — 2008

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