Ctesiphon

• 1. Founding And Rise

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  Mithridates I of Parthia established a military camp across from Seleucia in the late 120s BC. This small outpost grew into Ctesiphon, a city that would eventually span thirty square kilometers. The site sat on the eastern bank of the Tigris River, roughly thirty-five kilometers southeast of modern Baghdad. During the reign of Gotarzes I, the settlement reached its first peak as a political and commercial hub. By circa 58 BC under Orodes II, it officially became the Empire's capital. Strabo described the foundation with great detail, noting its strategic importance against Scythian incursions. The previous capitals lay too far north to be safe from these northern raids. Gradually, the new capital merged with the old Hellenistic city of Seleucia and other nearby settlements. This fusion created a vast cosmopolitan metropolis known simply as al-Mada'in or The Cities.

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• 2. Imperial Capital Status

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  By 226 AD, the Sasanian Empire seized control of Ctesiphon and made it their administrative heart for four centuries. The oldest inhabited areas clustered on the eastern side, where the White Palace stood. This district was called Madīnah al-'Atīqah by Islamic Arabic sources. The southern section bore the name Asbānbar, famous for its halls, riches, games, stables, and baths. Taq Kasra, the great archway, occupied this southern zone. The western side carried the Middle Persian name Veh-Ardashir, meaning the good city of Ardashir. Jews referred to this area as Mahoza, while Christians knew it as Kokhe. Wealthy Jewish communities populated this western quarter alongside the seat of the Nestorian patriarch. To the south lay Valashabad, followed by districts named Hanbu Shapur and Darzanidan. By the late sixth century, some accounts listed it as the largest city in the world. Its thirty square kilometers covered more than twice the surface of fourth-century imperial Rome.

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• 3. Roman Wars And Sieges

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  The Roman Empire targeted Ctesiphon repeatedly during their eastern wars over several centuries. Emperor Trajan captured the city in 116 AD but returned it a year later under Hadrian. General Avidius Cassius took control again in 164 AD before abandoning it when peace concluded. In 197 AD, Septimius Severus sacked the metropolis and sold thousands of inhabitants into slavery. Severus Alexander advanced toward the capital in 233 AD only to suffer a humiliating defeat against Ardashir I. Emperor Carus sacked the city uncontested in 283 AD during a period of civil upheaval. The Battle of Ctesiphon occurred in 363 AD, marking another major conflict. Byzantine Emperor Heraclius surrounded the capital in 627 AD, leaving after Persians accepted his terms. A deadly plague struck the region in 628 AD, killing Khosrow's son Kavad II. These repeated attacks left the city scarred yet resilient through multiple sackings.

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• 4. Religious Diversity And Society

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  Arameans, Persians, Greeks, and Assyrians lived together within the mixed population of Sasanian Ctesiphon. Christianity, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, and Manicheanism flourished side by side in this cosmopolitan environment. Mar Babai I fixed his see at Seleucia-Ctesiphon in 497 AD to supervise missions eastward. The Merv metropolis served as a pivot for these religious activities. Manicheans maintained their patriarchate of Babylon there throughout Umayyad rule. In the ninth century, surviving Manicheans fled up the Silk Road to Samarkand. Much of the population fled after the Arab capture of the metropolis. Some Persians remained behind, with important figures providing gifts to Ali that he refused. Church councils took place in the city or its Greek colony across the river in 410 AD. This diversity created a unique social fabric unlike any other ancient capital.

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• 5. Islamic Conquest And Decline

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  Muslim Arabs defeated the Sasanian Empire during the Battle of al-Qādisiyyah in the mid-630s. They attacked Ctesiphon and occupied it in early 637 AD. Military officer Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas seized Valashabad quickly. He made peace treaties allowing inhabitants of Veh-Antiok-Xusrō to leave if they chose. Those who stayed had to acknowledge Muslim authority and pay tribute known as jizya. When Muslims arrived at the main city, it was completely desolated due to royal flight. The throne hall in Taq Kasra briefly served as a mosque. Political and economic fortune shifted elsewhere after this conquest. Caliph Al-Mansur used materials from the ruins to construct Baghdad starting in the 760s. He attempted to demolish the palace but stopped when the task proved too vast. By the end of the eighth century, the site became a ghost town.

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• 6. Archaeological Excavations

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  Oscar Reuther led a German Oriental Society expedition that excavated at Ctesiphon between 1928 and 1929. Their work focused mainly on Qasr bint al-Qadi on the western part of the site. Winter seasons from 1931 to 1932 saw joint efforts by the German State Museums and The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Ernst Kühnel directed these operations across areas like Ma'aridh, Tell Dheheb, and Selman Pak. An Italian team from the University of Turin worked on the opposite side of the Tigris during the late 1960s and early 1970s. Antonio Invernizzi led restoration work primarily at the palace of Khosrow II. These teams uncovered significant portions of the ancient complex over several decades. In 2013, the Iraqi government contracted to restore Taq Kasra as a tourist attraction. Earlier battles occurred here during World War I in November 1915 when Ottoman forces defeated British troops attempting to capture Baghdad.

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