Russian literature

• 1. Medieval Foundations And Old Church Slavonic

  ›

  The oldest surviving manuscript of Early Russian literature dates to around the year 1000. It is known as the Novgorod Codex or Novgorod Psalter and was unearthed in Veliky Novgorod in the year 2000. This artifact contains four wooden tablet pages filled with wax. The roots of this literary tradition trace back to the late tenth century when Christianization introduced Old Church Slavonic as a liturgical language within Kievan Rus. While religious texts adopted this adapted form of Church Slavonic, native vernacular remained the language for oral epics like bylina and folksongs. Written records from that era included decrees, laws such as the Russkaya Pravda, and military tales. The Primary Chronicle or Tale of Nestor the Chronicler emerged around 1115 as one of the earliest historical chronicles. Anonymous works like The Tale of Igor's Campaign became a twelfth-century prose poem masterpiece. Hagiographies formed another popular genre, exemplified by Nestor the Chronicler writing about Boris and Gleb. These were the first saints of Kievan Rus. The Life of Alexander Nevsky combined political realism with hagiographical ideals during its narrative. Complex epic works such as The Tale of the Destruction of Ryazan recalled the havoc caused by Mongol invasions. By the sixteenth century, chronicles were updated under tsar Alexis who wanted to open a court theatre in 1672. Johann Gottfried Gregorii served as director and playwright for the play The Action of Artaxerxes which lasted ten hours. Symeon of Polotsk created a new style fusing Western European literature with traditional Russian rhetoric.

• 2. Peter The Greats Westernization Reforms

  ›

  Peter the Great initiated modernizing changes in Russian culture at the beginning of the eighteenth century. His reign set a precedent for writers to form clear ideas about the proper use of the Russian language. Satirist Antiokh Dmitrievich Kantemir lived from 1708 to 1744 and was one of the earliest writers to praise Peter I's reforms. He expressed admiration through his epic Petrida dedicated to the emperor. Vasily Kirillovich Trediakovsky translated Paul Tallemant's work Voyage to the Isle of Love into Russian vernacular. This translation marked a turning point where secular works could be composed in the vernacular while sacred texts remained in Church Slavonic. Alexander Petrovich Sumarokov lived from 1717 to 1777 and wrote the manifesto Epistle on Poetry declaring that great Peter hurls his thunder from Baltic shores. Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov favored a hierarchy of literary styles divided into high, middle and low categories. Ippolit Bogdanovich published the narrative poem Dushenka in 1778 as a rare sample of Rococo style erotic light poetry. Alexander Nikolayevich Radishchev shocked the public with depictions of serfs socio-economic conditions in Siberia. Empress Catherine II condemned this portrayal forcing him into exile. Nikolay Karamzin lived from 1766 to 1826 and advocated for heightened emotion and physical vanity in writing. Gavrila Romanovich Derzhavin served as Minister of Justice under Catherine II and was highly devoted to his state.

• 3. The Golden Age Of Realism And Poetry

  ›

  The nineteenth century is traditionally referred to as the Golden Era of Russian literature. The Romantic movement saw the flowering of poetic talent through figures like Vasily Zhukovsky and his protégé Alexander Pushkin. Pushkin crystallized the literary Russian language and introduced Eugene Onegin in 1833 as a pre-realistic novel in verse. Mikhail Lermontov wrote the narrative poem Demon between 1829 and 1839 chronicling a Byronic Demon's love for a mortal woman. He also authored A Hero of Our Time in 1841 which is often considered the first Russian psychological novel. Nikolai Gogol published Dead Souls in 1842 as the first great Russian rich language novel. Ivan Goncharov remembered Oblomov published in 1859 as part of the realistic natural school of fiction. Fyodor Dostoevsky and Leo Tolstoy became internationally renowned giants of this period. Nikolai Leskov developed unique skaz techniques combining oral form with stylization. Anton Chekhov emerged late in the century as a master of short stories and leading international dramatist. Nikolay Nekrasov wrote Who Can Be Happy and Free in Russia? as a sharp epic poem defining left-wing poetry. Ivan Krylov served as fabulist while Vissarion Belinsky acted as critic and political reformer. Aleksandr Ostrovsky and Kozma Prutkov contributed to drama and satire respectively.

• 4. Silver Age Modernist Movements

  ›

  The 1890s and beginning of the twentieth century ranks as the Silver Age of Russian poetry. Well-known poets include Alexander Blok, Sergei Yesenin, Valery Bryusov, Konstantin Balmont, Mikhail Kuzmin, Igor Severyanin, Sasha Chorny, Nikolay Gumilyov, Maximilian Voloshin, Innokenty Annensky, Zinaida Gippius, Anna Akhmatova, Marina Tsvetaeva, Osip Mandelstam, and Boris Pasternak. The Russian symbolism arose separately from West European symbolism emphasizing mysticism of Sophiology and defamiliarization. Vladimir Solovyov lived from 1853 to 1900 and was philosopher and poet associated with this movement. Cubo-Futurism practiced zaum experimental visual and sound poetry through David Burliuk, Velimir Khlebnikov, Aleksei Kruchenykh, Nikolai Aseyev, and Vladimir Mayakovsky. Ego-Futurism based on personality cult included Igor Severyanin and Vasilisk Gnedov. Acmeist poetry emerged around 1911 preferring direct expression through exact images via Anna Akhmatova, Nikolay Gumilev, Georgiy Ivanov, Mikhail Kuzmin, and Osip Mandelstam. In 1915 or 1916 the school of Russian Formalism appeared with programmatic article The Resurrection of the Word by Viktor Shklovsky published in 1914. Peak activity occurred in post-revolutionary 1920s. Integral part of Silver Age literature is Russian philosophy reaching its peak during this time with works by Nikolai Berdyaev, Pavel Florensky, Semyon Frank, Nikolay Lossky, and Vasily Rozanov.

• 5. Soviet Censorship And Socialist Realism

  ›

  After the October Revolution of 1917 literature split into Soviet and white émigré parts. The first years featured proliferation of avant-garde literary groups receiving official support. Imaginists created poetry based on sequences of arresting and uncommon images including Sergei Yesenin, Anatoly Marienhof, and Rurik Ivnev. The Oberiu group existed from 1927 to 1930s including Daniil Kharms, Konstantin Vaginov, Alexander Vvedensky, and Nikolay Zabolotsky. Vladimir Mayakovsky worked interpreting facts of new reality producing Ode to the Revolution and Left March both in 1918. In the 1930s Socialist realism became predominant trend in Soviet Union. Writers like those of Serapion Brothers group insisted on right to write independently but were forced to accept socialist realist principles. Osip Mandelstam, Daniil Kharms, Leonid Dobychin, Mikhail Bulgakov author of The White Guard published 1923 and The Master and Margarita written 1928 to 1940, and Andrei Platonov author of Chevengur published 1928 and Foundation Pit published 1930 were attacked as formalists or naturalists. Some writers executed on fabricated charges while others died in prison. Maxim Gorky returned to Russia and was proclaimed founder of Socialist Realism by authorities. His novel Mother published 1906 inspired proletarian writers to found socrealist movement. Nikolai Ostrovsky's novel How the Steel Was Tempered printed between 1932 and 1934 sold tens of millions copies worldwide with over 35 million circulation in Russia alone. Alexander Fadeyev wrote The Rout dealing with partisan struggle during Russian Civil War 1917 to 1922. Boris Pasternak wrote Doctor Zhivago between 1945 and 1955 causing scandal when published in Italy leading Soviet authorities to force him renounce his 1958 Nobel Prize.

• 6. Post-Soviet Chaos And New Realism

  ›

  The end of twentieth century proved difficult period for Russian literature with relatively few distinct voices. Political and economic chaos of 1990s affected book market heavily causing printing industry crisis where number of printed copies dropped several times compared to Soviet era. It took about a decade to revive. Major thick literary magazines went bankrupt. Writers' traditional special place no longer recognized by most Russians. Victor Pelevin born 1962 authored Chapayev and the Void described as first novel taking place in absolute vacuum. Vladimir Sorokin born 1955 started underground writing career early 1980s producing novels Their Four Hearts and Blue Lard. Dmitry Prigov lived from 1940 to 2007 was conceptualist poet among discussed figures. Short stories of Sergei Dovlatov who emigrated to US in 1979 died 1990 became very popular posthumously. Detective stories and thrillers proven successful genre with serial detective novels by Alexandra Marinina, Polina Dashkova, Darya Dontsova published millions copies in 1990s. Boris Akunin wrote more sophisticated popular fiction including series about Erast Fandorin eagerly read across country. Science fiction always well selling albeit second to fantasy which was relatively new to Russian readers. These genres boomed late 1990s with authors like Sergey Lukyanenko, Nick Perumov, Maria Semenova, Vera Kamsha, Alexey Pekhov, Anton Vilgotsky, Vadim Panov. Good share modern science fiction and fantasy written Ukraine especially Kharkiv home to H.L. Oldie, Alexander Zorich, Yuri Nikitin, Andrey Valentinov. Many others hail from Kyiv including Marina and Sergey Dyachenko, Vladimir Arenev. Significant contribution done by Ukrainians Andrey Dashkov and Alexander Vargo to horror literature. New generation appeared differing greatly from postmodernist prose leading critics speak about new realism as contemporary trend.