Socialist realism
On the 25th of October 1917, Bolshevik forces seized control of Russia and immediately began reshaping its cultural landscape. Anatoly Lunacharsky arrived as head of Narkompros to decide the direction of art for the new state. He did not dictate a single aesthetic model but developed a system based on the human body that would later influence socialist realism. Lunacharsky believed that seeing a healthy body or friendly smile was life-enhancing. He concluded that art had a direct effect on the human organism and could educate citizens to become perfect Soviets. Early examples of Russian realism included the work of Ilya Yefimovich Repin and the Peredvizhnikis group. These artists exhibited techniques exercised by their successors even without political connotation. A short period of artistic exploration occurred between the fall of the Tsar and the rise of the Bolsheviks. By 1928, the Soviet government ended private enterprises and support for fringe groups like the futurists. The term socialist realism first appeared in press on the 23rd of May 1932, according to Ivan Gronsky in Literaturnaya Gazeta. Four guidelines were laid out during the Congress of 1934: proletarian, typical, realistic, and partisan. Maxim Gorky published a famous article titled Socialist Realism in 1933 to promote these ideas. The doctrine became official policy when Stalin's representative Andrei Zhdanov gave a speech at the First Congress of Soviet Writers. This marked the beginning of state-controlled propaganda through individual artists and their works.
The primary objective of socialist realism was to depict reality in its revolutionary development. No formal guidelines concerning style or subject matter were provided initially. Works usually featured unambiguous narratives relating to Marxist-Leninist ideology such as the emancipation of the proletariat. Key concepts included partiinost meaning party-mindedness and ideinost referring to ideological content. Klassovost denoted class content while pravdivost meant truthfulness. Ideinost was an important concept because the work had to embody an approved idea. Content mattered more than form which allowed identification of formalism. A prevailing sense of optimism characterized the movement since it showed ideal Soviet society. Both present and future were depicted in agreeable fashion creating forced optimism. Tragedy and negativity were not permitted unless shown in different time or place. This sentiment created what would later be dubbed revolutionary romanticism. Revolutionary romanticism elevated the common worker whether factory or agricultural by presenting life, work, and recreation as admirable. Its purpose was to show how much standard of living improved thanks to revolution. The ultimate aim was to create Lenin's entirely new type of human being known as New Soviet Man. Stalin described socialist realist artists as engineers of souls. Common images used included flowers, sunlight, body, youth, flight, industry, and new technology. These poetic images showed utopianism of communism and Soviet state. Art became functional rather than aesthetic pleasure serving specific purpose. Georgi Plekhanov stated that art acquired social significance only if it conveyed actions emotions and events significant to society.
The Association of Artists of Revolutionary Russia established itself in 1922 as one of most influential artist groups in USSR. They worked to truthfully document contemporary life using heroic realism which began socialist realism archetype. Leon Trotsky sponsored AKhRR and carried favor with Red Army. In 1928 the group renamed itself Association of Artists of Revolution to include rest of Soviet states. At this point they participated in state promoted mass forms like murals jointly-made paintings advertisement production and textile design. The group disbanded the 23rd of April 1932 by decree On Reorganization of Literary and Artistic Organizations serving nucleus for Stalinist USSR Union of Artists. A studio of military artists named after M.B. Grekov created in 1934 produced numerous works. Painters depicted happy muscular peasants and workers in factories and collective farms. During Stalin period they produced numerous heroic portraits of Stalin to serve his cult of personality all in most realistic fashion possible. Vladimir Gorb Boris Korneev Engels Kozlov Felix Lembersky Oleg Lomakin Samuil Nevelshtein Victor Oreshnikov Semion Rotnitsky Lev Russov and Leonid Steele painted portraits. Landscapes came from Nikolai Galakhov Vasily Golubev Dmitry Maevsky Sergei Osipov Vladimir Ovchinnikov Alexander Semionov Arseny Semionov and Nikolai Timkov. Genre paintings included Andrey Milnikov Yevsey Moiseenko Mikhail Natarevich Yuri Neprintsev Nikolai Pozdneev Mikhail Trufanov Yuri Tulin Nina Veselova and others. In 1974 a show of unofficial art near Moscow was broken up with water cannon and bulldozers known as Bulldozer Exhibition. Socialist realism remained official state art style until fall of Soviet Union in 1991.
Maxim Gorky's novel Mother published in 1906 is usually considered first socialist-realist novel. Andrei Sinyavsky noted this fact while Gorky also major factor in school rapid rise. His pamphlet On Socialist Realism essentially laid out needs of Soviet art. Other important works include Fyodor Gladkov's Cement published 1925 and Nikolai Ostrovsky's How the Steel Was Tempered released 1936. Aleksey Tolstoy wrote epic trilogy The Road to Calvary spanning 1922 to 1941. Yury Krymov's Tanker Derbent from 1938 portrayed Soviet merchant seafarers transformed by Stakhanovite movement. D. Selvaraj authored Thol which won Sahithya Akademi award for year 2012. Theater became realm where socialist realism took root reaching masses within Soviet bloc and outside it. China emerged another hotbed for socialist realism within theater. Platon Kerzhentsev theorized breaking down barriers between actors and public creating unity. Early 1920s saw explosion of creativity with organizations like TEO Narkompros working incorporate new types theater. By 1930s Bolshoi Theater became symbol Bolshevik power integrating socialist realism into opera performed there. Union of Soviet Composers established 1932 played role creating new operas speaking importance socialist realism opposition modernistic art. Tian Han president China Theater Association pushed theatrical reform transferring ownership private troupes state ones focusing subject matter plays themselves. Bai Wei developed style 1920s focusing women patriarchal society struggle break free incorporating ideas socialist realism though characters more individualized less collective.
Poster propaganda produced during Russian Civil War spanning 1917 to 1922 showed men overrepresented workers peasants combat heroes. When women shown often symbolize abstract concept Mother Russia freedom or nurses victims. Symbolic women depicted femininewearing long dresses long hair bare breasts. Urban proletariat group bringing Bolsheviks power characterized masculinity physical strength dignity usually blacksmiths. In 1920 Soviet artists began produce first images women proletarians differing symbolic women from 1910s resembling aspects male workersdignity masculinity supernatural power case blacksmiths. Many paintings 1920s men women almost indistinguishable stature clothing but women often taking subservient roles assistant rabotnitsa. Women blacksmith figures less common significant since first time women represented proletarians. Introduction women workers propaganda coincided series government policies allowing divorce abortion sexual freedom. Peasant women rarely depicted socialist propaganda art period before 1920 socialist realism still inception. Typical image peasant bearded sandal-shoed man shoddy clothes scythe until 1920 when artists created peasant women buxom full-bodied scarf tied head. Image peasant women not always positive evoking derogatory caricature baba used against peasant women women general older stereotypes Tsarist aristocracy. Style socialist realism began dominate Soviet artistic community starting Stalin rose power 1930 government took active role regulating art creation. AKhRR became hierarchical association privileged realist style oil paintings field dominated men over posters other mediums women primarily worked. Task Soviet artists create visualizations New Soviet Man idealized icon humanity living socialism. Figure encapsulated both men women per Russian word chelovek masculine term meaning person. While new Soviet person could male female figure man often used represent gender neutrality.
After World War II socialist realism adopted official policy communist states politically aligned Soviet Union. Socialist trends literature established 1920s Germany France Czechoslovakia Poland. Writers helping develop socialist realism West included Louis Aragon Johannes Becher Pablo Neruda. During 1950s massive undertaking crucial role fell architects perceived engineers creating streets edifices rather merely engineers human soul expressing grandiose ideas arousing feelings stability persistence political power. In mid-1960s more relaxed decorative styles acceptable even large public works Warsaw Pact bloc mostly deriving popular posters illustrations paper discreet influence Western equivalents. Today arguably only countries still focused aesthetic principles North Korea Laos Vietnam extent. Former Socialist Federal Republic Yugoslavia important exception among communist countries Tito-Stalin split 1948 abandoned socialist realism elements previously imported Soviet system allowing greater artistic freedom. Socialist realism main art current People's Socialist Republic Albania. Three works Albanian artists socialist era exhibited documenta 14 in 2017. Indonesia Lembaga Kebudajaan Rakjat abbreviated Lekra meaning Institute People Culture prolific cultural social movement associated Communist Party Indonesia founded 1950 pushed artists writers teachers follow doctrine socialist realism. Increasingly vocal against non-Lekra members group rallied Manifes Kebudayaan Cultural Manifesto eventually leading President Sukarno banning hesitations. After the 30th of September Movement Lekra banned together Communist party. China's socialist literature existed trend Stalinist-influenced socialist realism particularly major works Mikhail Sholokhov Virgin Soil Upturned Galina Nikolaeva Harvest widely translated disseminated China. Academics including Cai Xiang Rebecca E. Karl Xueping Zhong place greater weight influence Mao Zedong 1942 lectures Talks Yan'an Forum Art Literature. Years 1952 to 1954 architectural style socialist realism from Soviet Union influenced Chinese architecture. Socialist realism introduced Chinese oil painting through class held Konstantin Maksimov Beijing Feng Fasi Heroic Death Liu Hulan regarded classic socialist realist painting.
After death Stalin 1953 succeeded Nikita Khrushchev allowed less draconian state controls openly condemned Stalin artistic demands 1956 Secret Speech beginning reversal policy known Khrushchev Thaw. In 1964 Khrushchev removed replaced Leonid Brezhnev reintroduced Stalin ideas reversed artistic decisions made Khrushchev. By early 1980s Socialist Realist movement begun fade artists date remark Russian Social Realist movement most oppressive shunned period Soviet Art. Even before end USSR 1991 government reducing practices censorship. After Stalin's death 1953 Nikita Khrushchev began condemn previous regime practice excessive restrictions freedom allowed artists begin experimenting new techniques shift immediate. Not until ultimate fall Soviet rule artists no longer restricted deposed Communist Party. Many socialist realist tendencies prevailed mid-to-late 1990s early 2000s. In 1990s many Russian artists used characteristics socialist realism ironic fashion completely different existed couple decades before. Once artists broke socialist realist mould significant power shift achieved level authority not existed since early 20th century. Artists began including subjects could exist according Soviet ideals. Now power appearances taken away from government artists achieved level authority not existed since early 20th century. In decade immediately after fall USSR artists represented socialist realism Soviet legacy traumatic event. Next decade unique sense detachment Western cultures often look socialist realism positively democratic countries view art produced period repression lie based Capitalist realism. Non-Marxist art historians tend view communism form totalitarianism smothers artistic expression retards progress capitalist culture. Recent years reclamation movement Moscow addition Institute Russian Realist Art IRRA three-story museum dedicated preserving 20th-century Russian realist paintings.
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Common questions
When did socialist realism first appear in the press?
The term socialist realism first appeared in the press on the 23rd of May 1932 according to Ivan Gronsky in Literaturnaya Gazeta. This appearance followed a period where the Soviet government ended private enterprises and support for fringe groups like the futurists by 1928.
Who established the official policy of socialist realism in the Soviet Union?
Stalin's representative Andrei Zhdanov gave a speech at the First Congress of Soviet Writers that marked the beginning of state-controlled propaganda through individual artists and their works. The doctrine became official policy after Maxim Gorky published a famous article titled Socialist Realism in 1933 to promote these ideas.
What were the four guidelines laid out during the Congress of 1934?
Four guidelines were laid out during the Congress of 1934 including proletarian typical realistic and partisan. These principles guided the creation of art that embodied approved ideas while prioritizing content over form to identify formalism.
Which novel is usually considered the first socialist-realist work?
Maxim Gorky's novel Mother published in 1906 is usually considered the first socialist-realist novel. Andrei Sinyavsky noted this fact while Gorky also served as a major factor in the school rapid rise of the movement.
When did socialist realism remain the official state art style until?
Socialist realism remained official state art style until fall of Soviet Union in 1991. After Stalin's death in 1953 Nikita Khrushchev began to condemn previous regime practices but the style persisted until the ultimate fall of Soviet rule.