Rohingya people

• 1. Origins And Identity

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  In 1799, Francis Buchanan wrote an article called A Comparative Vocabulary of Some of the Languages Spoken in the Burma Empire. Among the native groups of Arakan, he listed Mohammedans who had long settled in Arakan and who call themselves Rooinga or natives of Arakan. This historical record predates British colonial rule by decades and suggests a distinct community existed before modern borders were drawn. The term Rohingya emerged from colonial and pre-colonial terms like Rooinga and Rwangya. In 1815, Johann Severin Vater listed Ruinga as an ethnic group with a distinct language in a compendium published in German. By 1936, when Burma was still under British rule, the Rohingya Jam'iyyat al Ulama was founded in Arakan. The community claims descent from populations in both precolonial Arakan and colonial Arakan. Historically, the region was an independent kingdom situated between Southeast Asia and the Indian subcontinent. Arab merchants had been in contact with Arakan since the third century using the Bay of Bengal to reach the area. Early Muslim settlements began in the 7th century according to scholar Syed Islam. Arab traders converted local Buddhist population to Islam by about 788 CE. They married local women and later settled in Arakan resulting in intermarriage and conversion that grew the Muslim population. Some historians argue this claim is based on fictitious stories rather than evidence. Others point to Sanskrit inscriptions indicating founders of first Arakanese states were Indian. The Chandra dynasty ruled the region while Buddhism became well established by the 4th century. The alternate view contests that Islam arrived in the Arakan region in the 1st millennium stating there is scant historical data about early political history. The term Rohingya does not appear in any regional text of this period much later. It was adopted by Bengali Muslim intellectuals who were direct descendants of immigrants from Chittagong district in the 20th century.

• 2. Colonial Migration Patterns

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  British policy encouraged Bengali inhabitants from adjacent regions to migrate into then lightly populated and fertile valleys of Arakan as farm labourers. The East India Company extended the Bengal Presidency to Arakan creating no international boundary between Bengal and Arakan with no restrictions on migration. In the early 19th century thousands of Bengalis from the Chittagong region settled in Arakan seeking work. The British census of 1872 reported 58,255 Muslims in Akyab District. By 1911 the Muslim population had increased to 178,647. Waves of migration were primarily due to requirement of cheap labour from British India to work in paddy fields. Immigrants from Bengal moved en masse into western townships of Arakan. At beginning of 20th century Indians were arriving in Burma at rate of no less than quarter million per year. Numbers rose steadily until peak year of 1927 when immigration reached 480,000 people. Rangoon exceeded New York City as greatest immigration port in world. This was out of total population of only 13 million equivalent to United Kingdom today taking 2 million people a year. In most largest cities in Burma including Rangoon Akyab Bassein and Moulmein Indian immigrants formed majority of population. All of Burma was officially Province within British Indian Empire from November 1885 until 1937 when Burma became separate Crown colony within British Empire. Burmese under British rule felt helpless reacting with racism combining feelings of superiority and fear. Professor Andrew Selth writes although few Rohingya trace ancestry to Muslims who lived in Arakan in 15th and 16th centuries most arrived with British colonialists in 19th and 20th centuries. The issue became focus for grass-roots Burmese nationalism leading to serious anti-Indian disturbances in Lower Burma during years 1930, 31. Riots specifically directed against Indian Muslim community occurred in 1938. Muslims of northern Arakan were caught in crossfire of conflict between rising Burmese nationalism and alien Indian presence.

• 3. Statelessness And Law

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  In 1982 the citizenship law enacted by Burmese military junta did not list Rohingya as one of 135 national races of Burma. This made much of Rohingya population stateless in their historical homeland of Arakan. General Ne Win drafted Citizenship Act in 1982 denying citizenship rights to any community group that was not listed in survey conducted by British in 1823. All other ethnic groups considered aliens to land or invaders. Eight major ethnicities including Arakan Chin Kachin Karen Kayah Mon Shan and Burmese broken into 135 small ethnic groups. Groups like Rohingya who do not belong to any of these 135 ethnicities denied citizenship rights. Scholars like Maung Zarni argue Burmese military encoded its anti-Indian and anti-Muslim racism in laws and policies. The 1982 Citizenship Act serves as state legal and ideological foundation on which all forms violence execution restrictions and human rights crimes justified committed with state impunity if carried out horizontally by local ultra-nationalist Rakhine Buddhists. On-the-ground link between legalised removal of citizenship from Rohingya and implementation permanent set draconian laws policies amount to infliction on Rohingya conditions life designed bring about serious bodily mental harm destroy group whole part. Illegalisation of Rohingya in Myanmar indication intent State remove Rohingya permanently from homeland destroy them as group. Before the 1982 law many Rohingya held National Registration Cards allowing movement access education civil service jobs. After Burma became independent in 1948 M.A. Gaffar presented memorandum calling recognition term Rohingya based on local Indian names Rohan and Rohang as official name ethnicity. Sultan Ahmed served Parliamentary Secretary Ministry Minorities member Justice Sir Ba U Commission exploring whether Arakan Division granted statehood. During 1951 Burmese general election five Rohingyas elected Parliament including one country first two female MPs Zura Begum. Six MPs elected during 1956 Burmese general election subsequent by-elections. Sultan Mahmud former politician British India became Minister Health cabinet Prime Minister U Nu. In 1960 Mahmud suggested either Rohingya-majority northern Arakan remain under central government made separate province. However during 1960 Burmese general election Prime Minister U Nu pledges included making all Arakan into one province. 1962 Burmese coup d'état ended country Westminster-style political system stripping most Rohingya stake citizenship.

• 4. Decades Of Persecution

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  Operation King Dragon took place in 1978 resulting many Muslims region fled neighbouring Bangladesh as refugees. An estimated 200,000 Rohingyas took shelter in Cox's Bazar. Diplomatic initiatives over 16 months resulted repatriation agreement allowing return most refugees process facilitated UNHCR. Return refugees second largest repatriation process Asia after return Cambodian refugees from Thailand. In 1978 Bangladesh government protested Burmese government concerning expulsion force thousands Burmese Muslim citizens to Bangladesh. Burmese government responded those expelled were Bangladesh citizens resided illegally Burma. In July 1978 after intensive negotiations mediated UN Ne Win government agreed take back 200,000 refugees settled Arakan. Same year well as 1992 joint statement governments Myanmar Bangladesh acknowledged Rohingya lawful Burmese residents. After 1982 Burmese government enacted citizenship law declared Bengalis foreigners. Widespread beliefs among Rakhine people significant number immigrants arrived even after 1980s when border relatively unguarded. However no documentation proof claims last census conducted 1983. Successive Burmese governments fortified border built up border guard forces. Since 1990s new Rohingya movement distinct from 1950s armed rebellion emerged characterised lobbying internationally overseas diaspora establishing indigenous claims Rohingya scholars publicising term Rohingya denying Bengali origins Rohingya politicians. Rohingya scholars claimed Rakhine previously Islamic state millennium Muslims king-makers Rakhine kings 350 years often traced origin Rohingyas Arab seafarers. These claims rejected newly invented myths academic circles. Some Rohingya politicians labelled Burmese international historians Rakhine sympathizers rejecting purported historical origins. Movement garnered sharp criticisms ethnic Rakhines Kamans latter recognised Muslim ethnic group Rakhine. Kaman leaders support citizenship Muslims northern Rakhine believe new movement aimed achieving self-administered area Rohang State separate Islamic state carved out Rakhine condemn movement. Rakhines views more critical citing Bangladesh overpopulation density perceive Rohingyas vanguard unstoppable wave people inevitably engulf Rakhine. Moderate Rohingya politicians agree compromise term Rohingya if citizenship provided alternative identity neither Bengali nor Rohingya. Various alternatives including Rakhine Muslims Myanmar Muslims simply Myanmar proposed. In 1990s more than 250,000 Rohingya fled refugee camps Bangladesh. Early 2000s all but 20,000 repatriated Myanmar some against will. In 2009 senior Burmese envoy Hong Kong branded Rohingyas ugly ogres people alien Myanmar. Under 2008 constitution Myanmar military still control much country government including ministries home defence border affairs 25% seats parliament one vice-president.

• 5. The 2017 Genocide

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  Starting early August 2017 Myanmar security forces began clearance operations against Rohingya northern Rakhine state following attack Rohingya militants Arakan Rohingya Salvation Army ARSA several security force outposts the 25th of August. Operations escalated radically killing thousands brutalising thousands driving hundreds thousands country neighbouring Bangladesh villages burned. Myanmar military claimed actions solely attacks rebels response ARSA attack. Subsequent reports various international organisations indicated military operations widespread indiscriminate attacks Rohingya population already underway before ARSA attacks purge northern Rakhine state Rohingya through ethnic cleansing genocide. Study estimated more than 24,000+ Rohingya people killed Myanmar military local Buddhists since clearance operations started the 25th of August 2017. Study also estimated 18,000+ Rohingya Muslim women girls raped 116,000 beaten 36,000 thrown fire. Médecins Sans Frontières calculated at least 6,700 Rohingya men women children killed first month major attacks including at least 750 children number later revised over 1,000. MSF estimated 69% killed gunshots 9% burnt death including 15% children killed 5% beaten death. Numbers likely underestimation surveys don't account families never made Myanmar. Refugees reported numerous civilians including women children indiscriminately beaten raped tortured shot hacked death burned alive whole villages burnt authorities Buddhist mobs. Human Rights Watch released satellite photos showing villages burning Myanmar government insisted fires lit Rohingya themselves specifically Rohingya militants authorities offered no proof allegation refused tightly controlled media foreign access area. Presidential spokesman reported 176 ethnic Rohingya villages out original total 471 three townships became empty. In addition 176 abandoned villages residents reportedly fled from at least 34 other villages. First four weeks conflict over 400,000 Rohingya refugees approximately 40% remaining Rohingya in Myanmar fled country foot boat chiefly Bangladesh only other country bordering Rakhine state area attack creating major humanitarian crisis. In addition 12,000 Rakhine Buddhists non-Muslim Rakhine state residents displaced within country. By end September conflicts between Rohingya Muslims outnumbered Hindus apparent killing around 100 Hindu villagers northern Rakhine state late August according Myanmar military claimed found bodies 20 women eight boys mass graves the 24th of September search near Ye Baw Kya village northern Rakhine state.

• 6. International Legal Battles

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  The most recent mass displacement of Rohingya in 2017 prompted International Criminal Court investigate crimes against humanity and International Court Justice hear case alleging genocide. UN human rights envoy to Myanmar reported long history discrimination persecution against Rohingya community could amount crimes against humanity. Probes UN found evidence increasing incitement hatred religious intolerance ultra-nationalist Buddhists against Rohingyas while Myanmar security forces conducting summary executions enforced disappearances arbitrary arrests detentions torture ill-treatment forced labour against community. Before 2015 Rohingya refugee crisis military crackdown 2016 2017 Rohingya population Myanmar close 1.4 million chiefly northern Rakhine townships which were 80, 98% Rohingya. Since 2015 over 900,000 Rohingya refugees fled south-eastern Bangladesh alone more surrounding countries major Muslim nations. More than 100,000 Rohingyas Myanmar confined camps internally displaced persons. In December 2017 estimated 625,000 refugees from Rakhine Myanmar crossed border into Bangladesh since August 2017. UN officials Human Rights Watch described Myanmar persecution Rohingya ethnic cleansing. U.N. calls for Myanmar generals tried genocide blames Facebook incitement. Investigators call genocide prosecutions slaughter Rohingyas. Year After Rohingya Massacres Top Generals Unrepentant Unpunished. UN Security Council issued separate unanimous statement crisis following closed-door meeting about Myanmar expressing concern reported excessive violence Myanmar security operations called de-escalating situation reestablishing law order protecting civilians resolution refugee problem. U.N. Secretary General issued statement the 13th of September 2017 implying situation facing Rohingya Rakhine state ethnic cleansing urged Myanmar authorities suspend military action stop violence insisting government uphold rule law noting 380,000 Rohingya recently fled Bangladesh recognise refugees right return homes.