Carolingian Empire
In 732, a Muslim army crossed the Pyrenees and marched north toward Tours. Charles Martel stood at the head of Christian European forces to stop them. He earned the surname Martel, meaning "the Hammer," after this victory. Historian Edward Gibbon later called him "the paramount prince of his age." This battle marked the beginning of absolute rule for Charles over virtually all continental Western Europe north of the Pyrenees.
Charles chose not to take the title of king or emperor himself. His son Pepin III accepted the nomination as king by Pope Zachary in about 741. Charlemagne's rule began in 768 following Pepin's death. He proceeded to take control of the kingdom after his brother Carloman I died. The two brothers had co-inherited their father's kingdom before that moment.
Charlemagne defeated the Lombard Kingdom in 774 and annexed it into his own domain. He declared himself King of the Lombards during this campaign. A failed campaign into Spain followed in 778, ending with the Battle of Roncevaux Pass. This event is considered Charlemagne's greatest defeat.
He extended his domain into Bavaria after forcing Tassilo III, Duke of Bavaria, to renounce any claim to his title in 794. His son Pepin was ordered to campaign against the Avars in 795 since Charlemagne was occupied with Saxon revolts. Eventually, the Avar confederation ended in 803 after Charlemagne sent a Bavarian army into Pannonia. He also conquered Saxon territories in wars and rebellions fought from 772 to 804. Events like the Massacre of Verden in 782 occurred during these conflicts. The codification of the Lex Saxonum took place in 802.
Louis the Pious' reign as emperor began unexpectedly when he became the third son of Charlemagne. He was originally crowned King of Aquitaine at three years old. With the deaths of his older siblings, he went from "a boy who became a king to a man who would be emperor." As soon as he heard of the death of Charlemagne, he hurried to Aachen. There he exiled many of Charlemagne's trusted advisors, such as Wala.
In 817 Louis had established three Carolingian kingships for his sons from his first marriage. Lothar was made king of Italy and co-emperor. Pepin was made king of Aquitaine. Louis the German was made king of Bavaria. His attempts in 823 to bring his fourth son Charles the Bald into the will were marked by resistance from his eldest sons. In 830 civil war broke out during Lent. Shortly after Easter, his sons attacked Louis' empire and dethroned him in favour of Lothar. By 840, Lothar claimed the entire empire irrespective of partitions. After losing the Battle of Fontenay in 841, Lothar fled to his capital at Aachen.
The partition of the Carolingian Empire was finally settled in 843 between Louis the Pious' three sons in the Treaty of Verdun. Lothar received the imperial title, the kingship of Italy, and the territory between the Rhine and Rhone Rivers. This area was collectively called the Central Frankish Realm. Louis was guaranteed the kingship of all lands to the east of the Rhine and to the north and east of Italy. This region was called the Eastern Frankish Realm, which became the precursor to modern Germany.
Charles received all lands west of the Rhone, which was called the Western Frankish Realm. The Oaths of Strasbourg in 842 had already marked the east, west division of the empire between Louis and Charles. Considered a milestone in European history, these oaths symbolize the birth of both France and Germany. In 855, the Treaty of Prüm divided Lothar's kingdom into three parts. His second son Lothar II received the remaining territory for which there was no traditional name. That realm was named Lotharingia.
No permanent capital city existed in the empire, yet Charlemagne began to build the Palace of Aachen in the 780s. The palace chapel, constructed in 796, later became Aachen Cathedral. During the 790s, when construction picked up at Aachen, Charlemagne's court became more centred compared with the 770s where court so often found itself located in tents during campaigning. Stuart Airlie suggests that there were over 150 palaces throughout the Carolingian World which would provide the setting for court activity.
In 802, a reform led to the office of Missi Dominici becoming a permanent one. These officials were sent out in pairs. One was an ecclesiastic and one secular. They made four journeys a year in their local missaticum, each lasting a month. Their status as high officials was thought to safeguard them from the temptation of taking bribes. They were responsible for making the royal will and capitularies known, judging cases and occasionally raising armies. There are 262 surviving charters from Charles' reign as opposed to 40 from Pepin's.
The population of the empire was roughly between 10 and 20 million people. Chris Wickham suggests that there are currently no reliable calculations for the period regarding the populations of early medieval towns. What is likely, however, is that most cities of the empire did not exceed the 20, 25,000 speculated for Rome during this period. On an empire-wide level, populations expanded steadily from 750 to 850.
Timothy Newfield challenges the idea of demographic expansion, criticising scholars for relying on the impact of recurring pandemics in the preceding period of 541-750. He ignores the frequency of famines in Carolingian Europe. A study using climate proxies such as the Greenland ice core 'GISP2' has indicated that there may have been relatively favourable conditions for the empire's early years. Several harsh winters appear afterwards. The extent of the impact of these findings on the empire's populations is difficult to discern.
Charlemagne aimed to convert all those in the Frankish kingdom to Christianity and to expand both his empire and the reach of Christianity. The 789 Admonitio Generalis pronounced Charlemagne responsible for the salvation of his subjects. It set out standards of education for the clergy, who previously had been mostly illiterate. Intellectuals such as Alcuin reckoned that Charlemagne's coronation as emperor on Christmas Day 800 marked the beginning of the seventh and final age of the world.
In 800 Pope Leo III crowned King Charlemagne as Roman emperor in return for political protection. This act disregarded the universalist claims of the weakened Byzantine Empire. Louis the Pious made significant effort to restore many monasteries that had disappeared prior to his reign. He also sponsored new ones. One of the first things he did was "ruling the people by law and with the wealth of his piety," namely by restoring churches.
Charles the Fat reunited all the Carolingian kingdoms for the last time in 884. He was deposed by the Frankish nobility in 887 and died in 888. The empire immediately fractured. With the only remaining legitimate male of the dynasty a child, the nobility elected regional kings from outside the dynasty. In the case of the eastern kingdom, they chose an illegitimate Carolingian. The other part of Lotharingia became the duchy of Burgundy.
Despite the relatively short existence of the Carolingian Empire when compared to other European dynastic empires, its legacy far outlasts the state that had forged it. In historiographical terms, the Carolingian Empire is seen as the beginning of 'feudalism'. Four of the five Ottonian emperors crowned themselves in Charlemagne's palace in Aachen. They likely sought to establish a continuity from the Carolingians. Even with their dynasty originating from Charlemagne's arch-foe Saxony, Ottonians still linked their dynasty to the Carolingians through direct and indirect means.
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Common questions
When did Charles Martel earn the surname Martel?
Charles Martel earned the surname Martel after his victory over a Muslim army crossing the Pyrenees in 732. This battle marked the beginning of absolute rule for him over virtually all continental Western Europe north of the Pyrenees.
Who was crowned Roman emperor by Pope Leo III on Christmas Day 800?
King Charlemagne was crowned Roman emperor by Pope Leo III on Christmas Day 800. This act disregarded the universalist claims of the weakened Byzantine Empire and is considered to mark the beginning of the seventh and final age of the world by intellectuals such as Alcuin.
What territories were divided in the Treaty of Verdun in 843?
The Treaty of Verdun in 843 divided the Carolingian Empire between Louis the Pious' three sons into the Central Frankish Realm, the Eastern Frankish Realm, and the Western Frankish Realm. Lothar received the imperial title and territory between the Rhine and Rhone Rivers while Louis received lands east of the Rhine and Charles received lands west of the Rhone.
When did the Carolingian Empire end and who deposed its last ruler?
The Carolingian Empire ended when Charles the Fat was deposed by the Frankish nobility in 887 after uniting all kingdoms for the last time in 884. He died in 888 and the empire immediately fractured with regional kings elected from outside the dynasty.
How many palaces existed throughout the Carolingian World according to Stuart Airlie?
Stuart Airlie suggests that there were over 150 palaces throughout the Carolingian World which provided the setting for court activity. No permanent capital city existed yet Charlemagne began building the Palace of Aachen in the 780s where the palace chapel was constructed in 796.