Menander I
Menander I Soter ruled from approximately 155 BC to 130 BC. He administered a large territory in the northwestern regions of the Indian subcontinent and Central Asia. Ancient Greek geographer Strabo wrote that he conquered more tribes than Alexander the Great. His empire stretched from the Kabul River in the west to the Ravi River in the east. It extended from the Swat River valley in the north down to Arachosia, which is modern Helmand Province. Some ancient Indian writers suggest he launched expeditions southward into Rajputana and central India. Other accounts claim his forces reached as far east as Pataliputra on the Ganges River Valley. The sage Patanjali described a failed campaign of Menander as far as Mathura around 150 BC. This event was later reported in Kalidasa's drama Mālavikāgnimitram. The Hathigumpha inscription by King Kharavela of Kalinga places the Yavanas or Indo-Greeks in Mathura. Kharavela states to have forced the demoralized Yavana army to retreat back to Mathura. In the West, Menander seems to have repelled the invasion of the dynasty of Greco-Bactrian usurper Eucratides. He pushed them back as far as the Paropamisadae thereby consolidating rule in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent. Accounts describe Indo-Greek campaigns to Sakala, Mathura, Panchala, Saketa, and potentially Pataliputra.
Menander's conversations with the Buddhist sage Nagasena are recorded in the influential Buddhist work known as the Milinda Panha. The text means The Questions of King Milinda in Pali language. His style may have been influenced by Plato's Dialogues. Buddhist tradition relates that following his discussions with Nāgasena, Menander adopted the Buddhist faith. He is described as constantly accompanied by an elite guard of 500 Greek soldiers. Two of his counsellors are named Demetrius and Antiochus. The Milinda Panha introduces him as a king who questions the nature of reality. After adopting Buddhism he handed over his kingdom to his son and retired from the world. Plutarch gives Menander as an example of benevolent rule contrasting him with disliked tyrants such as Dionysius. He explains that his subject towns fought over the honour of his burial ultimately sharing his ashes among them. They placed them in monuments possibly stupas across his realm. This has been taken as evidence of his conversion to Buddhism though modern scholars doubt Plutarch's account. A passage in the Mahā-parinibbâna sutta relates the dispute of Indian kings over the ashes of the Buddha which they finally shared between themselves and enshrined in a series of stupas.
Large numbers of Menander's coins have been unearthed attesting to both the flourishing commerce and longevity of his realm. His silver and bronze coin finds are the most numerous and the most widespread of all Indo-Greek kings. Precise dates of his reign remain elusive however guesses among historians suggest he was either a nephew or former general of Demetrius I. Menander's predecessor in Punjab seems to have been the king Apollodotus I. According to numismatist Joe Cribb accounts of his kingdom stretching as far as Sialkot are hard to believe. There is no numismatic evidence of him east of Taxila according to some experts. Numerous silver and copper coins have been found including the Siranwali hoard near Sialkot. The Sonipat hoard from present-day Haryana also contains his currency. Additional corroboration for mentions of Indo-Greek expeditions into the Gangetic plains may be furnished by the Yavanarajya inscription discovered in Mathura. Discoveries of Menander's coins in western Uttar Pradesh include the Pachkhura hoard unearthed near the Yamuna River in Hamirpur district. A clay pot filled with coins of preceding kings Diodotus I, Diodotus II, and Euthydemus I was found in Vaishali district Bihar. Bajaur is the only place where inscriptions of Menander have been found.
Menander died around 130 BC though ancient accounts differ on the circumstances. Plutarch relates that he died in camp while on a military campaign. Buddhist tradition holds that he was succeeded by his son and retired from the world. Despite his many successes Menander's last years may have been fraught with another civil war against Zoilos I who reigned in Gandhara. This is indicated by the fact that Menander probably overstruck a coin of Zoilos. The traditional view supported by W.W. Tarn and Bopearachchi suggests Menander was succeeded by his queen Agathoclea acting as regent to their infant son Strato I until he became an adult. Strato I used the same reverse as Menander I featuring Athena hurling a thunderbolt. On the other hand R.C. Senior and other numismatists suggest Strato I ruled several decades after Menander. They point out that Strato's and Agathoclea's monograms are usually different from Menander's. Overstrikes and hoard findings also associate them with later kings. In this scenario Menander was briefly succeeded by his son Thrason of whom a single coin is known. After Thrason was murdered competing kings such as Zoilos I or Lysias may have taken over Menander's kingdom.
Menander embraced the Buddhist faith according to tradition described in the Milinda Panha. A 2nd century BC relief from a Buddhist stupa in Bharhut represents a foreign soldier with curly hair of a Greek king. He holds a branch of ivy which is a symbol of Dionysos. Parts of his dress with rows of geometrical folds are characteristically Hellenistic in style. On his sword appears the Buddhist symbol of the three jewels or Triratana. A Buddhist reliquary found in Bajaur bears a dedicatory inscription referring to the reign of Great King Menander. An ancient Sri Lankan source called the Mahavamsa states Greek monks were active proselytizers during Menander's time. The Yona Mahadhammarakkhita came from Alasandra thought to be Alexandria of the Caucasus near Kabul. He arrived with 30,000 monks for the foundation ceremony of the Maha Thupa at Anuradhapura in Sri Lanka. A coin of Menander was found in the second oldest stratum of the Butkara stupa suggesting additional constructions during his reign. It is thought that Menander was the builder of the penultimate layer of the Butkara stupa following its initial construction during the Maurya Empire.
After the reign of Menander I Strato I and several subsequent Indo-Greek rulers depicted themselves forming a symbolic gesture identical to the Buddhist vitarka mudra. This gesture signifies the transmission of the Buddha's teaching. Right after the death of Menander several Indo-Greek rulers started to adopt on their coins the Pali title Dharmikasa meaning follower of the Dharma. The title of the great Indian Buddhist king Ashoka was Dharmaraja King of the Dharma. This usage was adopted by Strato I Zoilos I Heliocles II Theophilus Peucolaus and Archebius. Altogether the conversion of Menander to Buddhism suggested by the Milinda Panha seems to have triggered the use of Buddhist symbolism on the coinage of close to half of the kings who succeeded him. Especially all the kings after Menander who are recorded to have ruled in Gandhara display Buddhist symbolism in one form or another. A frieze in Sanchi executed during or soon after the reign of Menander depicts Buddhist devotees in Greek attire. These men are depicted with short curly hair often held together with a headband commonly seen on Greek coins. Their clothing too is Greek complete with tunics capes and sandals. Musical instruments such as the double flute called aulos are also visible. In Classical Antiquity from at least the 1st century the Mountains of Menander came to designate the mountain chain at the extreme east of the Indian subcontinent today's Naga Hills and Arakan.
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Common questions
When did Menander I rule and what territory did he control?
Menander I ruled from approximately 155 BC to 130 BC. His empire stretched from the Kabul River in the west to the Ravi River in the east and extended from the Swat River valley down to Arachosia.
What happened during Menander I's military campaigns against Indian kings?
Ancient sources state that Menander I launched expeditions southward into Rajputana and central India while his forces reached as far east as Pataliputra on the Ganges River Valley. The sage Patanjali described a failed campaign of Menander as far as Mathura around 150 BC which was later reported in Kalidasa's drama Mālavikāgnimitram.
How did Menander I convert to Buddhism according to historical texts?
Buddhist tradition relates that following his discussions with Nāgasena recorded in the Milinda Panha Menander adopted the Buddhist faith. He is described as constantly accompanied by an elite guard of 500 Greek soldiers before handing over his kingdom to his son and retiring from the world.
Where have coins of Menander I been discovered across the subcontinent?
Large numbers of Menander I's silver and bronze coins have been unearthed including the Siranwali hoard near Sialkot and the Sonipat hoard from present-day Haryana. Discoveries include the Pachkhura hoard found near the Yamuna River in Hamirpur district and Bajaur remains the only place where inscriptions of Menander have been found.
Who succeeded Menander I after his death around 130 BC?
The traditional view supported by W.W. Tarn and Bopearachchi suggests Menander I was succeeded by his queen Agathoclea acting as regent to their infant son Strato I until he became an adult. Some numismatists suggest Strato I ruled several decades after Menander while other accounts indicate Menander was briefly succeeded by his son Thrason of whom a single coin is known.