Maxentius

• 1. Dynastic Origins And Early Life

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  Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maxentius entered the world in 283 as the son of Emperor Maximian and his Syrian wife Eutropia. His father became emperor in 285, which positioned young Maxentius as a potential crown prince for future succession. He did not serve in any important military or administrative role during the reign of Diocletian and his own father. The exact date of his marriage to Valeria Maximilla remains unknown, though she was the daughter of Emperor Galerius. They had two sons together, including Valerius Romulus and one other child whose name is lost to history. When Diocletian and Maximian abdicated in 305, the empire passed to Constantius and Galerius instead of their sons. Lactantius' Epitome states that Galerius hated Maxentius and used his influence with Diocletian to ensure Maxentius was ignored in the succession. Perhaps Diocletian also thought Maxentius was not qualified for the military duties required by the imperial office. Maxentius retired to an estate located some miles from Rome while the political landscape shifted around him.

• 2. Usurpation And Accession To Power

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  Rumors reached the capital in late 306 that emperors intended to subject Roman citizens to capitation taxes like every other city in the empire. Officials planned to dissolve the remnants of the Praetorian Guard stationed at Rome, which sparked violent riots among the population. A group of officers from the city's garrisons turned to Maxentius to accept the imperial purple. Zosimus names these conspirators as Marcellianus, Marcellus, and Lucianus. They judged that official recognition granted to Constantine would likely be withheld from Maxentius, son of a former emperor. Maxentius accepted the honor and promised donations to the city's troops before being publicly acclaimed emperor on the 28th of October 306. The usurpation went largely without bloodshed, though Zosimus names only one victim during the initial uprising. The prefect of Rome went over to Maxentius and retained his office throughout the transition. Maxentius managed to secure recognition across Central Italy, Southern Italy, Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily, and African provinces. Northern Italy remained under control of Valerius Severus, who resided in Mediolanum or Milan. He refrained from using titles Augustus or Caesar initially, styling himself princeps invictus instead.

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• 3. Military Campaigns Against Rivals

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  Galerius marched to Italy with an even larger army during the summer of 307 while Maxentius negotiated with the invader. Many soldiers of Galerius defected to Maxentius after he offered large sums of money and invoked the authority of Maximian. Galerius was forced to withdraw from Italy, plundering the region on his retreat. Some time during this invasion, Severus was put to death by Maxentius at Tres Tabernae near Rome, though exact circumstances remain uncertain. After Galerius failed to subdue him, Maxentius' reign over Italy and Africa became firmly established. Beginning in 307, he attempted to arrange friendly contacts with Constantine. In the summer of that year, Maximian traveled to Gaul where Constantine married his daughter Fausta. The marriage led to Constantine being appointed Augustus by the senior emperor. Maximian tried to depose his son in an assembly of soldiers in Rome during April 308 but fled when troops remained faithful to Maxentius. The conference of Carnuntum in autumn 308 denied Maxentius recognition as legitimate emperor once again. Domitius Alexander was acclaimed emperor in Carthage late in 308, causing African provinces to secede from Maxentian rule. This created a dangerous situation since Africa provided critical food supplies for Rome.

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• 4. Architectural Legacy In Rome

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  Maxentius was the last emperor permanently to reside in Rome while attempting to embellish and restore the ancient capital. He carried out important building works including the Temple of the Divine Romulus dedicated to his deceased son who died in 309 at age fourteen. His eldest son Valerius Romulus was deified and buried in a mausoleum located within the Villa of Maxentius on the Via Appia. Nearby construction included the Circus of Maxentius which stood adjacent to the family burial grounds. The Basilica of Maxentius in the Roman Forum was completed by his enemy Constantine after Maxentius began its construction. Many buildings commonly associated with Constantine were actually built by Maxentius according to modern studies. These architectural achievements were overshadowed by Constantine's issuance of a damnatio memoriae against him later. The great basilica in the forum Romanum stands today as one of the most impressive edifices of ancient times despite being finished by his rival. Maxentius also constructed a villa and circus complex that demonstrated his commitment to urban improvement projects throughout Italy.

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• 5. The Battle Of The Milvian Bridge

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  Constantine crossed the Alps late in spring 312 with a quarter of his army totaling less than forty thousand men. He entered Segusium or Susa, a heavily fortified town containing a military garrison that shut its gates against him. Constantine ordered his forces to set the gates on fire and scale the walls before taking the town quickly. He forbade plundering of the town and advanced into northern Italy where Turin refused refuge to retreating Maxentian forces. At Augusta Taurinorum or Turin, Constantine encountered large forces of heavily armed Maxentian cavalry labeled clibanarii or cataphracti in ancient sources. In the ensuing battle Constantine spread his forces into a line allowing Maxentius' cavalry to ride into the middle of his formations. His own cavalry charged at the sides of the Maxentian cataphracts while beating them with iron-tipped clubs. Many Maxentian cavalrymen were dismounted while others became incapacitated by repeated blows from enemy weapons. Constantine then commanded foot soldiers to advance against surviving infantry who fled as they were cut down. Victory came easily according to contemporary panegyricists who spoke of the events. Other cities of the north Italian plain sent embassies of congratulation for his quick victories. He moved on to Milan where he was met with open gates and jubilant rejoicing before proceeding south.

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• 6. Religious Policy And Christian Relations

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  Recent studies conducted between 2021 and 2022 identified manuscript traditions of Maxentius' epistles that underwent numerous interpolations and forgery attempts. These texts adapted narratives to fit pro-Constantinian hagiographic stories involving Saint Catherine. Comparisons with Roman law and legal papyri allowed reconstruction of original documents mirroring reports from Eusebius of Caesarea, Optatus of Milevi, and Saint Augustine. Documents found in the Biblioteca Marciana of Venice reveal Maxentius ended the Great Persecution five years before the Edict of Milan. He made Christianity a licit religion welcoming New Gods into the Pax Deorum through official epistle one. The emperor abolished Diocletian's edict of persecution by law while threatening serious punishments for anyone persisting in persecuting Christians. He raged against the Donatist sect in Africa while reaffirming strategic alliances with the Church of Rome. The Diocletianic Persecutions extended from 303 to 311 across all territories except those under Maxentius jurisdiction. This represented the Roman empire's last largest and bloodiest official persecution of Christianity before his death. Maxentius used opportunities to strengthen support among Italian Christians by allowing them to elect new Bishop Eusebius.

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• 7. Discovery Of Imperial Regalia

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  Italian archaeologists announced an excavation under a shrine near the Palatine Hill in December 2006 that unearthed several items in wooden boxes. These artifacts were wrapped in linen and what appears to be silk before being identified as imperial regalia possibly belonging to Maxentius. The collection included three complete lances, four javelins, a base for standards, and three glass and chalcedony spheres. A sceptre holding a flower with a blue-green globe stood out as the most important find due to its intricate workmanship. Archaeologist Clementina Panella stated these artifacts clearly belonged to the emperor especially since the sceptre was very elaborate. She noted it was not an item one would let someone else possess given its significance. The insignia were likely hidden by Maxentius' supporters after he was defeated at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge by Constantine. Their goal appeared to be preserving the emperor's memory following his defeat and subsequent execution. Items have been restored and now sit on temporary display at the Museo Nazionale Romano located within the Palazzo Massimo alle Terme. These represent the only known imperial insignia recovered so far from ancient Roman history.

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