Maratha Empire
In 1645, a young Maratha aristocrat named Shivaji seized the fort of Torna from the Sultanate of Bijapur. This single capture marked the beginning of a resistance movement that would eventually challenge two empires. By 1674, Shivaji had crowned himself Chhatrapati, establishing an independent state called Hindavi Swarajya. His kingdom spanned about 4.1% of the Indian subcontinent but was spread across vast territories. At his death in 1680, he left behind approximately 300 forts and an army of 40,000 cavalrymen plus 50,000 infantry soldiers. He also maintained naval establishments along the western coast to protect trade routes.
Shivaji's son Sambhaji continued the expansionist policies after succeeding him in 1681. The Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb responded by leading an entire imperial court and an army of roughly 500,000 troops southward in 1681. For eight years, Sambhaji led successful campaigns against these massive forces. However, in early 1689, during a strategic meeting at Sangameshwar, Sambhaji was ambushed with only a few men accompanying him. Ganoji and Mukarrab Khan captured him on the 1st of February 1689. Both Sambhaji and his advisor Kavi Kalash were executed on the 21st of March 1689, after being taken to Bahadurgad.
After Sambhaji's death, his half-brother Rajaram ascended the throne but had to flee from Raigad to Vishalgad and then Gingee for safety. From there, Maratha commanders like Santaji Ghorpade and Dhanaji Jadhav recaptured many forts. In 1697, Rajaram offered a truce which Aurangzeb rejected. Rajaram died in 1700 at Sinhagad, leaving his widow Tarabai to assume control in her son Shivaji II's name.
Following Aurangzeb's death in 1707, Shahu, Shivaji's grandson, was released by Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah I. His mother remained hostage until he claimed the Maratha throne. This created two rival governments: one at Satara under Shahu and another at Kolhapur under Tarabai. Shahu appointed Balaji Vishwanath as Peshwa in 1713. The Treaty of Lonavala signed in 1714 with Kanhoji Angre secured naval power on the western coast. By 1719, Marathas marched to Delhi alongside Sayyid Hussain Ali, deposing Emperor Farrukhsiyar.
Bajirao I became Peshwa after Balaji Vishwanath's death in April 1720. Under his leadership, the kingdom expanded tenfold from 3% to 30% of modern India between 1720 and 1740. On the 28th of February 1728, the Battle of Palkhed near Nashik saw Bajirao defeat Qamar-ud-din Khan, Asaf Jah I of Hyderabad. In 1737, Marathas raided Delhi suburbs during the Battle of Delhi, defeating the Nizam decisively at Bhopal. They extracted large tributes and ceded Malwa through treaty.
The Battle of Vasai against Portuguese rulers occurred north of Mumbai. Chimaji Appa, brother of Bajirao, led this major victory. Raghuji Bhonsle expanded eastward into Bengal while Khanderao Dabhade moved west into Gujarat. Between 1741 and 1748, six expeditions targeted Bengal, causing economic ruin for local populations. Alivardi Khan signed peace in 1751, ceding Cuttack (Odisha) up to Subarnarekha River and agreeing to pay Rs. 1.2 million annually as Chauth.
By 1760, Maratha power reached its zenith with territory exceeding one-third of India. Sadashivrao Bhau sent over 50,000 regular troops north to recapture Delhi from Afghan garrison forces in August 1760. The city had been reduced to ashes multiple times due to previous invasions, creating acute supply shortages within the Maratha camp. Bhau ordered sacking of the depopulated city and planned placing his nephew Vishwasrao on the Mughal throne.
Ahmad Shah Durrani called upon Rohillas and Nawab of Oudh to assist him. On the 14th of January 1761, huge armies collided at Third Battle of Panipat. Despite initial fierce assaults killing over 10,000 Durrani soldiers including Haji Atai Khan, the Marathas lost the battle. Jats and Rajputs did not support them; Raja Suraj Mal withdrew troops before the great battle began. Their supply chains collapsed when Suraj Mal quit the alliance at Agra.
Historians criticize how Marathas treated fellow Hindu groups like Jats and Rajputs by taxing heavily and interfering internally. This antagonization ultimately cost them at Panipat where Muslim forces united under religious names. After defeat, Madhavrao I worked as unifying force moving south to subdue Mysore and Hyderabad while sending generals north to reestablish authority by early 1770s.
Ten years after collapse following Third Battle of Panipat, Mahadaji Shinde recaptured Delhi in early 1771 installing Shah Alam II as puppet ruler receiving title deputy Vakil-ul-Mutlak. He also obtained Amir-ul-Amara designation from Mughals. In May 1771, Shah Alam left Allahabad fort escorted by Shinde reaching Delhi January 1772. During short stay, Marathas constructed two temples including famous Alopi Devi Mandir.
Mahadaji intervened again in October 1788 killing Ghulam Kadir who had deposed and blinded Shah Alam II placing puppet on throne. Taking possession restored emperor to power acting as protector. Jaipur and Jodhpur remained outside direct domination so general Benoît de Boigne crushed their forces at Patan battle. Another achievement came victories over Nizam's armies culminating in Battle of Kharda 1795 where all major powers fought jointly against him.
In 1783, Mahadaji besieged Gwalior fort held by Jat ruler Chhatar Singh conquering it delegating administration to Khanderao Hari Bhalerao. Dividing Haryana into four territories: Delhi, Panipat, Hisar, Ahirwal, and Mewat. Daulat Rao Scindia ceded Haryana the 30th of December 1803 under Treaty Surji-Anjangaon leading Company rule India.
British East India Company intervened first time in succession struggle Pune behalf Raghunathrao wanting become Peshwa 1775. Forces Tukojirao Holkar Mahadaji Shinde defeated expeditionary force Battle Wadgaon heavy surrender terms including return annexed territory share revenues disavowed Bengal authorities fighting continued First Anglo-Maratha War ended 1782 restoration pre-war status quo abandonment Raghunathrao cause.
Second war began after Yashwantrao Holkar crowned King Holkars capturing Ujjain May 1802 marching Poona defeating Peshwa Baji Rao II resulting Battle Poona flight government hands Holkar appointed Amrutrao Peshwa going Indore the 13th of March 1803 All except Gaekwad chief Baroda accepted British protection separate treaty the 26th of July 1802 supported new regime making treaty Britain resolving disputes Scindia Peshwa tried unite Confederacy fail.
Third Anglo-Maratha War fought separately Maratha warlords forming common front surrendered one November 1817 Treaty Gwalior Shinde Pashtun Amir Khan subdued diplomacy pressure giving arms 1818 Percival Spear describes year watershed history India saying British dominion became British dominion India leaving control virtually present-day India south Sutlej River.
Shivaji created Ashtapradhan council eight ministers administering Maratha Kingdom. Ministerial designations drawn Sanskrit language included Peshwa Pantpradhan Prime Minister general administration Empire Amatya Mazumdar Finance Minister managing accounts Sachiv Secretary preparing royal edicts Mantri Interior Minister managing internal affairs especially intelligence espionage Senapati Commander-in-Chief managing forces defense Sumant Foreign Minister relationships sovereigns Nyayadhyaksh Chief Justice dispensing justice civil criminal matters Panditrao High Priest managing internal religious matters Chitnis Personal Secretary senior writer Chhatrapati sometimes considered second Peshwa absence equal them.
Notable exception priestly Panditrao judicial Nyayadisha pradhans held full-time military commands deputies performed civil duties stead later era Confederacy deputies staff constituted core Peshwa bureaucracy Shivaji created designation effectively delegate administrative duties growth Kingdom Prior 1749 Peshwas held office 8-9 years controlled Army later became de facto hereditary administrators till end 1818.
Maratha Navy laid foundation Indian Navy bringing significant changes naval warfare series sea forts battleships built 17th century reign Shivaji vessels constructed dockyards Konkan mostly indigenous without foreign aid 18th century Admiral Kanhoji Angre host facilities built entire western coastline present-day Maharashtra fortified coastline sea fortresses navigational facilities nearly hill forts dotting landscape western Maharashtra built Marathas renovation Gingee Fort Tamil Nadu particularly applauded contemporary European accounts defence fortifications matched European ones.
Afghan accounts praised infantry especially Ahmad Shah Abdali relieved initial stages almost destroying armies Indian allies Nawab Oudh Rohillas grand wazir Sardar Shah Wali Khan shocked fierce assault centre Durrani Army killing over 10,000 soldiers including Haji Atai Khan post battle letter claimed Afghans defeated only blessings almighty any other army destroyed particular day numerically inferior Durrani Army its Indian allies Arthur Wellesley Duke Wellington noted regular infantry artillery matched Europeans level warning officers underestimate battlefield cautioned never allow head close hand-to-hand combat cover utter disgrace summarised tactics relying cavalry disrupt supplies causing distress camp forcing retreat unleashing infantry formidable artillery relentlessly pursuing enemy depriving provisions compelling hasten march remaining confident safety counterattacks trail enemy marches halting encircle assaulting using infantry cannons making escape impossible.
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Common questions
When did Shivaji seize the fort of Torna to begin the Maratha Empire?
Shivaji seized the fort of Torna in 1645. This event marked the beginning of a resistance movement that eventually challenged two empires.
Who captured Sambhaji and when was he executed after his capture at Sangameshwar?
Ganoji and Mukarrab Khan captured Sambhaji on the 1st of February 1689 during a strategic meeting at Sangameshwar. Both Sambhaji and his advisor Kavi Kalash were executed on the 21st of March 1689 after being taken to Bahadurgad.
What percentage of modern India did the Maratha kingdom expand to under Bajirao I between 1720 and 1740?
Under the leadership of Bajirao I, the Maratha kingdom expanded tenfold from 3% to 30% of modern India between 1720 and 1740. This expansion included victories such as the Battle of Palkhed on the 28th of February 1728 near Nashik.
When did the Third Battle of Panipat occur and what was the outcome for the Maratha forces?
The Third Battle of Panipat occurred on the 14th of January 1761 where huge armies collided against Ahmad Shah Durrani. The Marathas lost the battle despite initial fierce assaults that killed over 10,000 Durrani soldiers including Haji Atai Khan.
Which treaty led to the cession of Haryana to British Company rule in 1803?
Daulat Rao Scindia ceded Haryana on the 30th of December 1803 under the Treaty Surji-Anjangaon leading to Company rule India. This event followed the siege of Gwalior fort held by Jat ruler Chhatar Singh in 1783.