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Ahmad Shah Durrani: the story on HearLore | HearLore
Ahmad Shah Durrani
Ahmad Shah Durrani was born between 1720 and 1722, a figure whose name would eventually become synonymous with the founding of modern Afghanistan, yet his origins were shrouded in the shifting sands of the Abdali tribe. His birthplace remains a subject of historical debate, with modern scholarship leaning toward Multan in present-day Pakistan, though primary sources commissioned by Ahmad Shah himself, such as the Tarikh-i Ahmad Shahi, insist on Herat. The early years of his life were marked by instability and flight; after his father, Zaman Khan, the emir of Herat, died in 1721, Ahmad Shah and his brother Zulfiqar Khan were raised in Shindand and Farah. When Zulfiqar Khan was defeated by the Iranian monarch Nader Shah in 1731, the brothers were forced to flee to Kandahar, where they became political prisoners of Hussain Hotak, the Hotak king. It was only after Nader Shah conquered Kandahar that Ahmad Shah was freed, beginning a long period of service under the great conqueror. During Nader Shah's invasion of India between 1738 and 1739, Ahmad Shah accompanied him, possibly commanding a regiment of Durrani tribesmen. His forces participated in the sacking of Delhi, and according to legend, Nizam ul-Mulk, the Mughal governor of Hyderabad, predicted Ahmad Shah would become king. Nader Shah is said to have taken notice of this prediction, clipping part of Ahmad Shah's ear as a symbolic gesture, reportedly saying, "When you become a king, this will remind you of me." Nader Shah also requested Ahmad Shah be generous with his descendants, a request that would echo through the decades of Ahmad Shah's own reign. By 1744, Ahmad Shah was promoted to Nader Shah's personal staff, and in a campaign against the Ottomans, he distinguished himself, earning permission to raise a contingent of 3,000 to 4,000 Durrani tribesmen. This unit became one of Nader Shah's most trusted forces, increasingly relied upon to suppress the influence of other commanders whom the Shah suspected of plotting rebellion or assassination.
The Assassination And The Rise
In June 1747, the world of the Afsharid Empire was shattered when Nader Shah was convinced his personal guard intended to assassinate him. He summoned Ahmad Shah and other loyal commanders, ordering him to assemble his Durrani regiments and arrest his personal guard, with permission to kill them all if they resisted. Nader Shah then chose to sleep with his favorite wife outside the royal tent, where the same guards he had accused of treachery presumed night duty. News of Nader Shah's plan leaked, forcing the conspirators to act. Four conspirators entered the royal enclosure and Nader Shah's tent at Quchan, assassinating him. Chaos ensued, and the conspirators resorted to pillaging the royal enclosure while news of the death spread rapidly. The next morning, the royal guard attacked Ahmad Shah's forces, who drove away the Persians and Qizilbash despite being heavily outnumbered. Ahmad Shah then entered the tent of Nader Shah, taking the Koh-i-Noor diamond and a signet ring from his body. Having driven off the Persians and Qizilbash, Ahmad Shah departed for Kandahar with his regiments and his Uzbek ally, Hajji Bi Ming. He first resolved the dispute of leadership, asserting himself as the leader of Durrani tribesmen by forcing the former leader to step down. Ahmad Shah also killed 'Abd al-Ghani Khan, his uncle and the governor of Kandahar, to consolidate full control over the Durrani regiments. Following this act, his forces grew to over 6,000 men. He moved through Khabushan, advancing to Kashmar, and accumulated supplies before proceeding to Torbat-e Heydarieh, where he received news that Adel Shah had dispatched a force to block the Afghan advance. Ahmad Shah responded by leading his forces to Tun and then Farah, where they defeated Adel Shah's army. With Farah under his control, the Afghans continued on to Grishk, and then Kandahar. While en route to Kandahar, Ahmad Shah recovered a military convoy carrying the annual tribute from Sindh, with estimates of the convoy's value ranging from 3 to 260 million rupees. The convoy was escorted by Mohammad Taqi Khan Shirazi, a disgruntled former officer of Nader Shah, and Nasir Khan, the governor of Kabul and Peshawar. Taqi Khan joined Ahmad Shah and divided the wealth, while Nasir Khan refused and was subsequently imprisoned, later released on the condition he pay an annual tribute of 500,000 rupees and acknowledge Ahmad Shah's suzerainty. Following this, Ahmad Shah's army grew to over 18,000 men, and came to include war elephants. Sindh would also enter Afghan suzerainty and see tribute imposed by Ahmad Shah during this period. Upon reaching Kandahar, Ahmad Shah encamped in Naderabad and prepared to be crowned king. According to legend, Ahmad Shah declared a Jirga summoning all tribal leaders, who unanimously selected Ahmad Shah as king, placing a piece of wheat or barley on his turban. In reality, Ahmad Shah was brought to power through a nine-man military council, and his accession was disputed by Jamal Khan, the leader of the Barakzai tribe. The dispute over accession continued until an agreement was made where Jamal Khan would submit to Ahmad Shah as king, while Ahmad Shah would make Jamal Khan and his descendants wazir. With an agreement reached, Sabir Shah, Ahmad Shah's advisor, took a piece of greenery or stalk and attached it to Ahmad Shah's cap, officially crowning him. Scholars state Ahmad Shah's rise to power was effectively a military coup rather than an election. Following his accession, Ahmad Shah adopted the title of Padishah, and the epithet "Durr-i Durrān", meaning "Pearl of Pearls", also changing the name of his tribe from Abdali to Durrani.
Ahmad Shah Durrani was born between 1720 and 1722. Modern scholarship leans toward Multan in present-day Pakistan as his birthplace, though primary sources commissioned by him insist on Herat.
How did Ahmad Shah Durrani become king of Afghanistan?
Ahmad Shah Durrani was crowned king in June 1747 following the assassination of Nader Shah. He was selected by a nine-man military council rather than through a traditional election, and his accession was disputed by Jamal Khan until an agreement was reached.
What happened during the fourth invasion of India by Ahmad Shah Durrani?
Ahmad Shah Durrani invaded India in November 1756 and reached Delhi by January 1757. He sacked the city, imposed heavy taxes, and massacred inhabitants in Mathura and Vrindavan before returning to Afghanistan in April 1757.
When did Ahmad Shah Durrani die?
The provided text does not state the date of Ahmad Shah Durrani's death. It details his campaigns and death of Nader Shah in 1747 but does not mention Ahmad Shah's death date.
Which battle did Ahmad Shah Durrani fight against the Marathas in 1761?
Ahmad Shah Durrani fought the Marathas at the Battle of Panipat in January 1761. The text describes the buildup to this battle, including the Battle of Kunjpura and the Battle of Samalkha, but cuts off before detailing the final outcome of the main engagement.
Weeks after Ahmad Shah's accession, Nasir Khan, the governor of Kabul, Ghazni, and Peshawar, revolted against him. Ahmad Shah had previously imprisoned Nasir Khan and ransomed him for an annual tribute of 500,000 rupees. While Nasir Khan was attempting to raise this amount, the Ghilzai tribes refused to pay their taxes to the Durranis, and only wished to do so to their Mughal sovereign, Muhammad Shah. With a growing Ghilzai revolt, Nasir Khan declared his independence from Durrani suzerainty and began raising an army of Uzbeks and Hazaras, while also frantically asking Muhammad Shah for aid. In autumn 1747, Ahmad Shah began his campaign against Nasir Khan, appointing his nephew Luqman Khan as the regent in Kandahar while he left on campaign. He marched with his army toward Ghazni only to be halted at Qalati Ghilji by his former allies, the Tokhi Ghilzai. Ahmad Shah stormed the fortress of Qalati, bringing the Tokhis to submission and annexing their lands over the following decades. He continued towards Ghazni, defeating the governor deputed there and conquering it with little opposition. Before advancing on Kabul, Ahmad Shah garnered the support of the Suleimankhel tribes in the region, while Taqi Khan managed to secure the defection of the Qizilbash garrison in Kabul so they would hand over the city once the Afghan army arrived. The acceptance of these terms forced Nasir Khan to flee to Peshawar, and when Ahmad Shah arrived at Kabul in October 1747, the Qizilbash handed over the Bala Hissar fortress. Ahmad Shah awarded the Qizilbash by giving them districts in Chindawol and Murad Khani. With Kabul under his control, Ahmad Shah dispatched his Commander-in-chief, Jahan Khan, toward Peshawar with the intention of advancing as far as Attock. Jahan Khan quickly overran Jalalabad, and Nasir Khan was unable to mount a defense at the Khyber Pass, forcing him to flee. The Afghan armies approached Peshawar, prompting many Pashtun tribes to declare support for them, including the Yusufzai, Afridi, and Khattak. Overwhelmed, Nasir Khan withdrew from Peshawar and fled to Delhi. Shāh Nawāz Khān, the Mughal governor of Punjab, opened correspondence with the Afghans after they had seized Peshawar. Shah Nawaz, having toppled his brother from power to assume control over Punjab, was opposed by the Mughal emperor Muhammad Shah, who refused to recognize him as governor. As a result, the Afghans promised to affirm Shah Nawaz as governor of Punjab if he accepted Durrani suzerainty. Shah Nawaz accepted this offer, but the Mughal vizier promised to confirm him as governor if he opposed the Afghan invasion instead, which Shah Nawaz accepted. The betrayal saw Ahmad Shah dispatch Sabir Shah to try and convince Shah Nawaz once again. However, after insulting Shah Nawaz, Sabir Shah was imprisoned and executed, and Shah Nawaz began marching against the Afghan army. Ahmad Shah crossed the Ravi River on the 10th of January, and encamped at the Shalimar Gardens outside Lahore. The armies of Shah Nawaz and Ahmad Shah fought the battle of Lahore on the 11th of January. When the battle began, the Afghan regiments of Shah Nawaz's army defected. Despite commanding a much larger army than the Afghans, the Mughals were defeated, and Shah Nawaz fled to Delhi. With their victory, the Afghans entered Lahore, beginning to plunder the city and massacring its inhabitants. Thousands were also conscripted, while the Mughals began mobilizing a larger army. Ahmad Shah left Lahore on the 19th of February with 30,000 men, beginning to advance on Delhi. He captured Sirhind and continued advancing, outmaneuvering the Mughal forces until they met at Manupur, where they battled. The Afghan forces assembled 12,000 against the Mughal army of 60,000 to 70,000 combatants. The Afghan army pressed the attack until disaster struck when the ammunition stores of the Afghan army caught fire and exploded, incinerating 1,000 men and forcing a complete withdrawal from the battlefield. The Mughals did not pursue the Afghan army due to the death of Mughal emperor Muhammad Shah and the ensuing turmoil in the camp. Withdrawing to Lahore, Ahmad Shah became aware that his nephew, Luqman Khan, who had been left as regent in Kandahar, had revolted. Ahmad Shah immediately returned to Afghanistan and marched on Kandahar, quickly quelling the revolt. He spent the summer of 1748 preparing for his second invasion of India. The timing was significant for Ahmad Shah, as Qamar-ud-Din, a significant commander for the Mughals at Manupur, had been killed, while Muhammad Shah's death saw him succeeded by Bahadur Shah, who largely focused on pleasure-seeking. Ahmad Shah also wished to avenge his defeat. In November 1748, Ahmad Shah began his second invasion of India. Moin-ul-Mulk, the new governor of Punjab, urgently requested reinforcement from the Mughals in Delhi. Moin-ul-Mulk, who wanted to avoid fighting the Afghans on open plains, remained on the defensive at Sodhra, as an ongoing power struggle with Nasir Khan, the former Mughal governor of Kabul, threatened his position. As a result, Jahan Khan was able to raid the countryside, including the Chaj Doab, whilst a party of Sikhs raided Lahore. Ahmad Shah advanced to Kopra and engaged in skirmishes with Moin-ul-Mulk's army. Overwhelmed with the rising power of the Sikhs and the Afghan invasion, Moin-ul-Mulk opened negotiations, ceding the revenues of Gujrat, Aurangabad, Sialkot, and Pasrur. These districts generated yearly revenues of 1.4 million rupees. Ahmad Shah returned to Afghanistan following the treaty, crossing through Peshawar, Dera Ismail Khan, and Dera Ghazi Khan. The regions of Dera Ismail Khan and Dera Ghazi Khan fell as he returned to Afghanistan, confirming the former tribal chiefs as governors in the region under his suzerainty.
The Khorasan Campaigns
Between 1749 and 1750, after his second invasion of India, Ahmad Shah launched his first campaign into Khorasan. Intent on conquering Herat, Ahmad Shah besieged the city for a long period of time until it finally fell in late 1750. With the fall of Herat, Ahmad Shah continued his campaign into Khorasan, besieging the fortress of Nun in the vicinity of Mashhad where its governor subsequently surrendered after a short siege. Ahmad Shah proceeded into Afsharid territory and initiated the siege of Mashhad, where he remained until November 1750. Attempts to storm the city by the Afghans were unsuccessful. Historians Jonathan Lee and Hari Ram Gupta state Iranian monarch Shahrokh Shah surrendered to Ahmad Shah personally so he could raise the siege. Shahrokh Shah accepted Afghan suzerainty, paying large tribute and releasing members of Ahmad Shah's family. However, historian Christine Noelle-Karimi states Ahmad Shah lifted the siege on the 10th of November, and was intent on returning years later. Shahrokh Shah had released a son of Ahmad Shah, possibly being Timur Shah Durrani, or Ahmad Shah's youngest son, Sanjar Mirza. Nonetheless, after the siege of Mashhad, Ahmad Shah advanced to Nishapur, which was ruled by the Qara Bayat Amirdom. He besieged the city and demanded its surrender, its governor Jafar Khan refused despite only having a few thousand soldiers in the garrison. Ahmad Shah ordered the walls to be breached utilizing cannons, and the Afghans broke through. However, the defenders of the city had established defenses and a trap, which the Afghans fell into. Close-quarters combat began after, in which Jafar Khan was killed. His nephew, Abbas Quli, took command of the garrison and repulsed the Afghan forces, inflicting horrific casualties on them, including some 12,000 dead, and thousands more wounded. With his army seriously weakened, Ahmad Shah ordered a retreat to Herat. The harsh winter weather killed thousands while the Afghans retreated, and Ahmad Shah was forced to leave behind much of his baggage, including his artillery and food supplies. When the Afghans reached the Hari Rud river, it was completely frozen. Attempting to cross it caused much of the ice to break, killing even more men and sweeping away pack animals for the army. Upon the armies' return to Herat, Ahmad Shah faced an assassination conspiracy from Darwish Ali Khan Hazara, the Durrani governor of Herat. The conspiracy was quickly quelled, Darwish Ali was imprisoned, and Ahmad Shah appointed Timur Shah as the new governor. In 1754, Ahmad Shah began preparing for a second campaign in Khorasan. During this time, Nishapur was besieged by Alam Khan, a former Afsharid viceroy. When Ahmad Shah began his invasion, Alam Khan's army completely dispersed, forcing his withdrawal to Sabzevar. Beginning his campaign in May 1754, Ahmad Shah departed from Herat with his army and advanced toward Tun. He dispatched Jahan Khan and Nasir Khan, the ruler of the Khanate of Kalat, to devastate the countryside. Following this, the Afghan forces marched against the governor of Tabas, Ali Murad Khan, who assembled his own army and met the Afghans in battle. Singh describes the battle that took place as one of the most bloodiest battles in Persian history. Ammunition failed to gain any clear advantage for both sides, forcing both armies to draw swords and began clashing. The battle remained indecisive until Ali Murad Khan was killed, and the remaining Persian army was completely routed. With the Persians defeated, Tabas and Tun were conquered between June and July 1754 by the Afghans. Ahmad Shah then led his forces to Mashhad, arriving before the city on the 23rd of July. A long siege protracted until the Afsharids finally submitted to Ahmad Shah on the 1st of December 1754. On the 4th, Ahmad Shah's name was read in the sermon, acknowledging his sovereignty over the Afsharids. With their victory, the Durranis annexed the territories of Torshiz, Bakharz, Jam, Khaf, and Turbat-e Haidari from the Afsharids. On the 9th of May 1755, Shahrokh Shah was officially re-instated as ruler over Mashhad, effectively as a Durrani protectorate. Ahmad Shah then began his march on Nishapur in the spring of 1755, while Shah Pasand Khan was dispatched toward Mazandaran against the Qajars. During the siege of Mashhad, the Camesgazak Kurd contingent of Alam Khan's forces completely defected to the Afghans, killing Alam Khan after dragging him from Sabzevar, which was conquered as a result. On the 17th of June 1755, the Afghan armies arrived at Nishapur, resulting in Abbas Quli's immediate submission. Abbas Quli sought to be pardoned for giving resistance during Ahmad Shah's first campaign. Not long after, however, Nishapur raised in rebellion due to news of Shah Pasand Khan being defeated by the Qajars. The gates of the city were closed on Ahmad Shah's troops, so the Afghans laid siege for one week. During the siege, Ahmad Shah lacked important siege equipment, and he solved this problem by having every mounted soldier carry kilograms of gunmetals. As the siege began, Ahmad Shah's Armenian cannon makers melted down the metal the soldiers had carried, forging a large cannon. The first shot of the cannon blasted through the city walls, and caused havoc in the city through houses and bazaars. The weapon forced the submission of the city elders, and they opened the gates of the city despite Abbas Quli's opposition. The city was then plundered, with the populace of the city spared if they went to the mosques and did not take anything with them. Afghan forces went to houses and tore down the defenses, razing significant portions of the city. Following the victory at Nishapur, Ahmad Shah defeated the Qajars and advanced further by sacking the cities of Tun and Tabas, carrying out massacres in these cities. Abbas Quli was initially captured by Ahmad Shah until he earned his favor. Abbas Quli married one of Ahmad Shah's daughters, while Ahmad Shah married Abbas Quli's sister. With these arrangements, Abbas Quli was allowed to return to Nishapur as governor of the city. He would remain close to Ahmad Shah throughout his life.
The Sack Of Delhi
Moin-ul-Mulk governed Punjab until his death in November 1753, and was succeeded by Mughlani Begum. In March 1756, Mughal vizier Imad ul-Mulk imprisoned her and deputed Adina Beg as the governor. Mughlani Begum pleaded Ahmad Shah to lead another invasion, promising him wealth. Due to the tyrannies of Imad ul-Mulk, several nobles such as Najib ud-Daula, a chief of Rohilkand, and the new Mughal emperor Alamgir II, pleaded for Ahmad Shah to invade. Ahmad Shah accepted the invitations and began his fourth invasion in November 1756, leaving Peshawar on the 15th, and crossing Attock on the 26th with an army of 80,000 men. He reached Lahore on the 20th of December, seizing the city with little resistance. Ahmad Shah garnered tribute from the city before continuing his march, crossing the Sutlej river on the 10th of January at Ludhiana, while the advance guard under his general, Jahan Khan, seized Sirhind, Karnal, and Panipat. The Marathas, who had signed a treaty to protect the Mughals from foreign invasions in 1752, assembled a contingent of 3,400 men under Antaji Mankeshwar, battling the Afghans at Narela. The Maratha forces, however, were defeated and forced to withdraw with losses of 100 men. Following the defeat of the Marathas, Najib ud-Daula defected to the Afghans, with Imad ul-Mulk surrendering not long after. Jahan Khan continued his advance to Luni and besieged Shahdara on the 17th of January, with the Jama Masjid in Delhi reading Ahmad Shah's name in the Khutbah as a sign of sovereignty. The Afghan forces continued advancing on Delhi, arriving before the city on the 28th of January. Meeting with Alamgir II at the Fatehpuri Mosque, Ahmad Shah led a grand entry into Delhi, which was marked with a gun salute. However, many inhabitants of the city had already fled or hidden, with the streets completely deserted. Many people barricaded themselves in their houses. Ahmad Shah's name was also inserted in the Khutbah for other mosques. Initially the Afghan army was ordered not to sack the city. Alamgir II was placed under house arrest, and houses outside the city of Delhi were ravaged. On the 29th, the bazaars of the city were sacked and Jahan Khan's soldiers extracted tribute from Feroz Shah Kotla, a large fortress in Delhi. On the 30th of January, Ahmad Shah minted coins in his name. He also married Hazrat Begum, a daughter of Alamgir II, while his son, Timur Shah, married another daughter of Alamgir II. Ahmad Shah then ordered all Hindus to wear distinctive marks on their head, and forbade non-Muslims from wearing a turban. Extortionate demands were also placed upon the Mughal nobility. The Mughal nobility refused, and Ahmad Shah dispatched his own tax collectors, demanding additional tribute. Those suspected of concealing valuables were subjected to torture, including foot whipping. Many thousands died or were crippled as a result, while others resorted to suicide. A tax was also imposed on every household in Delhi. Imad ul-Mulk was forced to hand over gold and ornaments valued at 10 million rupees, and another 300,000 gold coins. Wazir Intizam-ud-Daulah was summoned, and many of his assets were confiscated, including over 10 million rupees and 100 of his wives. Unable to produce the required wealth, Intizam admitted his father had buried a fortune, which the Afghans uncovered. The Afghans recovered over 15 million rupees in cash, along with various goods, including 200 golden candles that were the size of a man. The treasure also included diamonds, rubies, pearls, and emeralds. After sacking Delhi, Ahmad Shah campaigned against the Jats. Suraj Mal, the ruler of the Jats, initially submitted to Ahmad Shah, but refused to send asylum seekers from the sack of Delhi, resulting in conflict. An Afghan force was sent to Faridabad, seizing the fortress and razing it. However, a Jat raid under Jawahar Singh defeated the Afghans, massacring them. In response, Ahmad Shah laid siege to Ballabhgarh, while Jahan Khan and Najib ud-Daula were dispatched to loot the surrounding regions. They advanced toward Mathura, while Jawahar Singh met them for battle at Chaumuhan. The ensuing battle left between 10 and 12,000 dead on both sides combined, with an innumerable amount of men wounded as well. Jawahar Singh alongside Antaji Mankeshwar reinforced Ballabhgarh. The cannon fire of the Afghans completely broke the defenses of the fortress, forcing Jawahar to withdraw in the night, with Afghan forces seizing the city on the 4th of March. An expedition under Abdus Samad Khan, another of Ahmad Shah's generals, nearly arrested Jawahar Singh during an ambush, but Jawahar ultimately evaded capture. Toward the end of February 1757, the Afghan forces arrived in Mathura and sacked it. The city, despite being inhabited overwhelmingly by non-combatants, mainly pilgrims of the Hindu Holi festival, was attacked and the inhabitants were massacred by the Afghans. The Afghan forces slaughtered and defiled the bodies of Hindu ascetics by humiliating them with slaughtered cows. Temples of the city were razed, and the images of idols were destroyed. Jahan Khan furthered the massacre by rewarding a bounty of five rupees for every Hindu head, resulting in the death of thousands of men, women, and children. The Muslims of the city were subjected to the attack as well. Following his massacre at Mathura, Jahan Khan continued his campaign, with the city of Vrindavan being attacked and its inhabitants massacred on the 6th of March. The Tarikh-I-Husain Shahi establishes the idol destruction in line with iconoclasm, remarking: "Idols were broken and kicked about like polo-balls by the Islamic heroes." Ahmad Shah, following Jahan Khan, attacked the city of Gokul on the 16th of March, which was inhabited by Naga Sadhus, a Hindu Bhakti sect. The Afghans attacked the city where a battle ensued, resulting in the death of 2,000 men for both sides. Jugal Kishor, a diplomat from the Bengal Subah, informed Ahmad Shah there was nothing of value in Gokul. Ahmad Shah ordered a withdrawal, sparing the city from sacking. On the 21st of March, Jahan Khan arrived before Agra with 15,000 men, besieging the city. Civilians from the town received Jahan Khan and his army, promising 500,000 rupees in tribute. However, after failing to raise the amount, Afghan forces entered the city, plundering it and massacring over 2,000. The Afghan forces attempted to seize Agra Fort but failed due to the defense of Mirza Saifullah, the garrison commander. He defended the fort with extensive artillery usage, preventing the Afghans from approaching with cannons. Jahan Khan seized 100,000 rupees in tribute, before withdrawing to Ahmad Shah's camp on the 24th of March after being recalled. Cholera had broken out in the Afghan camp, killing around 150 men per day, caused mainly by the polluted Yamuna River which was overwhelmed with bodies. As a result, Ahmad Shah intended to return to Afghanistan, especially to secure the loot from the campaign. The heat of the Indian summer also convinced him to return. Ahmad Shah started returning to Afghanistan in April 1757, declaring his son Timur Shah governor of Punjab, while Jahan Khan served as his deputy. Sirhind was annexed from the Mughals, Imad ul-Mulk was re-instated as vizier, and Najib ud-Daula appointed the Mir Bakhshi. Alamgir II was allowed to rule Delhi as a vassal of the Durrani Empire. The Afghan invasion had dire consequences for the Mughal Empire, as most of the Mughal army, along with those from the Bengal Subah, were forcibly deployed against the Afghans. Mere months later, the army of the Bengal Subah, weakened due to the Afghan invasion, were utterly defeated at the Battle of Plassey, leading to the rise of British power in India. The total loot Ahmad Shah carried back to Afghanistan is disputed. Contemporary writers estimate the Afghans seized 30 to 300 million rupees worth of goods. Over 28,000 elephants, camels, and mules carried Ahmad Shah's loot, alongside 80,000 soldiers, who carried whatever they had looted, with many of the Afghan cavalry returning on foot while they loaded the loot unto their horses. The massacres committed by the Afghans throughout the campaign made the Yamuna River flow red with blood for two weeks.
The Battle Of Panipat
Preoccupied with the uprising in Kalat, Ahmad Shah was unable to pursue a campaign against the Marathas, instead dispatching his generals, Jahan Khan and Nur ud-Din Bamizai, who were both defeated. In October 1759, Ahmad Shah began his fifth invasion of India. He had been invited by numerous rulers and religious leaders across India, including Shah Waliullah Dehlawi, who wrote to Ahmad Shah pleading for him to save the Muslims of India. Hari Ram Gupta considered the letter sent by Shah Waliullah as one of the most important historical documents of the 18th century. Ahmad Shah used this letter to get a jihad declared by religious leaders in Kandahar. Further invitations were sent by Najib ud-Daula, who wanted India to become a permanent extension of the Afghan empire. Alamgir II sent fervent requests to Ahmad Shah for aid, affirming his loyalty and informing him of the intentions of Imad ul-Mulk, who wished to assassinate him. Even Hindu rulers such as Madho Singh, the ruler of Amber, and Vijay Singh, the ruler of Marwar, were discontent with Maratha expansion and sent letters to Ahmad Shah. Ahmad Shah also wished to avenge the defeat of his son Timur Shah, and to reclaim the lost territories of Punjab. Ahmad Shah split his forces to attack from two sides. Jahan Khan advanced from Kandahar to Kabul, and then through the Khyber Pass with an army of 20,000; while Ahmad Shah led a force of 40,000 through the Bolan Pass. He was further reinforced by Nasir Khan and other Afghan chiefs, eventually fording the Indus on the 25th of October 1759. When Ahmad Shah entered the Punjab, Jahan Khan had forced the Maratha forces stationed at Attock to evacuate, pursuing them and battling at Rohtas, where the Maratha army was routed, forcing their withdrawal to Delhi. At this time, Ahmad Shah approached Multan with his army. The Maratha governor in response fled to Lahore, leaving the city to be captured without resistance. With the Afghans converging on Lahore, the Maratha forces withdrew to Batala and then Sirhind, with some Maratha detachments being caught and destroyed. At Lahore, Jahan Khan battled with the Sikhs. No clear victor emerged, and the Afghans suffered some 2,000 dead, while Jahan Khan was wounded during the battle. The approach of Ahmad Shah Durrani caused havoc throughout all of Northern India, causing Imad ul-Mulk to have Alamgir II and Intizam-ud-Daulah murdered as a result, placing Shah Jahan III on the Mughal throne. Ahmad Shah continued advancing through Punjab and Jahan Khan seized Sirhind on the 27th of November, with both armies uniting at Sirhind in December 1759. Enraged by the execution of Alamgir II, Ahmad Shah began racing toward Delhi. He reached Ambala on the 20th of December and advanced towards Taraori, leading to a battle against the Marathas led by Dattaji Scindia. The advance guard of the Afghan army clashed with the Marathas and was initially routed, initiating a withdrawal. However, Ahmad Shah, ready to support the battle, dispatched 5,000 men under Shah Pasand Khan. The forces of Imad ul-Mulk in the battle completely fled at the sight of Shah Pasand's flag, and the Afghans attacked with muskets. Further detachments of the Afghan army sent by Ahmad Shah brought the battle to an end, with the Maratha force completely surrounded and destroyed. Following the battle, Ahmad Shah forded the Yamuna and united with the forces of Najib ud-Daula and other Rohilla leaders at Saharanpur. The combined armies marched toward Delhi, encamping at Luni, around from the Red Fort in Delhi on the other side of the Yamuna. Dattaji Scindia returned to Kunjpura following his defeat at Taraori, and prepared to defend Delhi from the Afghan army. He first sent Imad ul-Mulk to set up the defenses of the city. However, Imad ul-Mulk deserted the Marathas and fled to Suraj Mal. Dattaji then advanced to Sonipat, attempting to track Ahmad Shah's movements, which was made difficult as the Afghans kept their movements confidential by killing every Indian found outside their houses. Dattaji established camp at Barari on the 4th of January 1760. On the 9th of January, Najib ud-Daula began crossing the Yamuna with Ahmad Shah following him, leading to the battle of Barari Ghat. The Maratha forces opposed the advance of the Afghans across the river but were overpowered by musketeers, with much of the Maratha army only armed with spears and swords. Dattaji, attempting to enter the fray himself, was shot either in the eye, or the ribs, causing his death. Further Maratha reinforcements were useless against the Afghan musket fire, forcing the Marathas to withdraw from the field with a thousand dead, and the Afghans victorious. Having defeated the Marathas at Barari Ghat, Ahmad Shah entered Delhi, with his men plundering the city. Much of the population of the city had already fled, and he took Shah Jahan III under his protection instead of claiming the Mughal throne for himself. Ahmad Shah also deputed Yaqub Ali Khan as governor of the city, who was a nephew of his vizier, Shah Wali Khan, before leaving to march against Suraj Mal. Leaving Delhi on the 27th of January, Ahmad Shah besieged Deeg on the 7th of February, although not committing to the siege seriously. During the siege, he sent a detachment under Jahan Khan which routed a Maratha army on the 11th of February at Rewari. Ahmad Shah then pursued a Maratha force led by Malhar Rao Holkar stationed at Narnaul. After reaching Rewari, Ahmad Shah was evaded by Holkar, and the Maratha force crossed the Yamuna river on 26, the 27th of February, entering Najib ud-Daula's territories. On the 28th of February, Holkar advanced to Sikandrabad, awaiting news of the Afghan position. On the 1st of March 1760, Ahmad Shah dispatched a force of 15,000 under Jahan Khan, Shah Pasand Khan, and Qalandar Khan to halt the Maratha army. The Marathas were caught on the 4th of March and completely routed at the battle of Sikandarabad, with many Maratha officers slain. Holkar himself fled for his life to Agra, and then to Bharatpur to meet Suraj Mal. With another victory over the Marathas, Ahmad Shah proceeded to Aligarh, which belonged to the Jats, and besieged it. Unable to receive any reinforcements, the fort surrendered to the Afghans. At Aligarh, Najib ud-Daula advised Ahmad Shah to rest and wait out for the summer and monsoon seasons to pass, especially as the summer had been so catastrophic for the Afghans during the fourth invasion of India. Najib ud-Daula then expelled the Marathas from Shikohabad, Phaphund, and Bithoor. As the Afghans settled in, they resorted to diplomacy to strengthen their position. Ahmad Khan Bangash, although an initial Maratha ally, was appealed to by Shah Wali Khan as an Afghan brother. Ahmad Khan thus allied with the Durranis and arrived at their camp on the 13th of April 1760. The Afghans also successfully negotiated with the ruler of Oudh, Shuja ud-Daula, who allied with the Durrani camp in July 1760. Ahmad Shah also had friendly relations with the Rajputs, even declaring to them his intention to invade the Deccan in the winter. At this time, the Marathas sent reinforcements under Sadashivrao Bhau, a cousin of the Peshwa, Balaji Baji Rao. The reinforcements also included Vishwasrao, the heir of the Maratha Confederacy, and nearly all significant Maratha commanders. Sadashivrao was described as an ignorant commander with a short temper and pride, ignoring the advice of more senior commanders who had experience in Northern India, and failing to anticipate certain outcomes. The Maratha force reached Agra on the 14th of July. Sadashivrao, finding the Yamuna river overflowing, settled on advancing to Delhi. The Marathas advanced from Mathura and reached Delhi on the 23rd of July, where it was stormed. The city fell to the Marathas, but the Red Fort held out. On the 29th of July, negotiations for the garrison's withdrawal culminated. Yaqub Ali Khan was allowed to leave the city to Ahmad Shah's camp with his men unharmed, and Maratha forces occupied the Red Fort on the 1st of August. The Marathas began facing difficulties on the 4th of August, when Suraj Mal and Imad ul-Mulk defected from the Marathas and returned to their posts. Furthermore, the Maratha army lacked food and feed for their horses. The situation became so difficult that Sadashivrao wrote there was no money to pay for food and the men of the army and the horses were fasting. Peace negotiations between Ahmad Shah and the Marathas also failed, with both parties seeking their own extensive demands. By the end of September 1760, the Maratha camp was overridden with starvation. Ahmad Shah, however, was anxious to return to Afghanistan since his settling at Aligarh, as he never intended to form an Afghan empire based in India. The Marathas left Delhi on the 10th of October, and Ahmad Shah responded by having his army arrayed across the Yamuna. Sadashivrao, intending to seize Kunjpura, which had vast supplies, arrived before the city on the 16th of October. The battle of Kunjpura ensued which saw the Marathas victorious and the Afghan governor at Kunjpura, Najabat Khan, and Abdus Samad Khan killed. Ahmad Shah was unable to help the defenders of Delhi and Kunjpura as he was stuck on the other side of the Yamuna. Ahmad Shah, infuriated at the fall of Kunjpura, began preparing for a crossing over the flooded and practically unfordable Yamuna river at Baghpat. The Afghan forces crossed between 25 and the 26th of October, massacring a Maratha detachment near Sonipat. Another battle at Samalkha saw the Marathas forced back to their camp at Panipat. On the 30th of October, Ahmad Shah reached Sambhalka, and arrayed before the Marathas on the 1st of November. Najib ud-Daula was dispatched by Ahmad Shah to prevent Maratha supplies flowing in from Delhi, defeating the forces of Naro Shankar, the Maratha governor of Delhi. Sadashivrao in response sent Govind Pant Bundela to invade Rohilla territories and cut off Afghan supplies. Marching with 12,000 horsemen, the Maratha detachment advanced up to Meerut before being attacked by an Afghan contingent of 14,000 dispatched by Ahmad Shah on the 17th of December under Atai Khan. Govind Pant was killed and the Maratha force was routed, with large amounts of supplies being seized by the Afghans. The Marathas were cut off from all supplies as a result, and a last desperate attempt for peace was sent by Sadashivrao, even agreeing on any term Ahmad Shah deemed fit. Najib ud-Daula shut down the idea and Ahmad Shah rejected peace. As starvation gripped the Maratha camp, Sadashivrao concluded with his cabinet of war on the 13th of January to attack the Afghans. On the 14th of January, the Maratha forces assembled and began marching on the Afghan camp. The numbers of the battle vary by source. Historian JL Mehta states the Afghans had 79,800 men, while the mustered Marathas 85,000. The Afghans had a gradual flow of manpower into the army while the Marathas did not, ensuring the Marathas were far outnumbered during the battle. The third battle of Panipat ensued and Ibrahim Khan Gardi unleashed his cannons on the Afghans. However, the troops operating the cannons were completely inexperienced and their artillery fire merely flew overhead the Afghan army. Ibrahim Khan, realizing his failure in this regard, held his cannon fire and instead engaged with a detachment of his troops against the Rohilla units of Ahmad Shah's army. Other Maratha officers attempted to engage as well with Ibrahim Khan's forces. The Rohillas responded with musket fire and the Marathas were beaten back with heavy casualties. Ibrahim Khan's forces were devastated by Rohilla cavalry, resulting in the losses of over six battalions and Ibrahim Khan himself being wounded, with the Maratha left wing failing. Sadashivrao led an attack on the Afghan centre simultaneously, with both sides having equal numbers. Despite the Rohilla victory on the left wing, the Afghan centre was exposed, and the Marathas breached over three lines in the Afghan centre, with around 3,000 Afghans dead or wounded. At a pivotal moment, Ahmad Shah sent his reinforcements of 4,000 Qizilbash to the right wing and 10,000 men to the Afghan centre. Ahmad Shah also dispatched his zamburaks, inflicting heavy casualties on the Marathas. A counter-attack was launched by the Afghans across all fronts. Vishwasrao was then killed by a bullet, with news of his death spreading through the Maratha camp and leading to the desertion of over 2,000 Afghans and Rohillas serving the Marathas. The Maratha left wing was thus dismantled and routed. As the Rohillas launched their own attack, Malhar Rao Holkar fled the battle. The Afghan left wing caved in on the Maratha centre, while the Maratha right wing was completely annihilated by Najib ud-Daula. Ahmad Shah then advanced to the centre to command the final stage of the battle. Sadashivrao attempted to assault the Afghan centre twice but was pushed back with heavy losses. Ahmad Shah then ordered 8,000 reinforcements from his own tribe to attack, and Sadashivrao was killed during the fray. The death of Sadashivrao saw all Maratha resistance dissipate and the Maratha centre was slaughtered. The Marathas who tried to escape the battlefield were chased. A minimum of 75,000 Marathas are estimated to have been killed, the maximum number being 100,000. This included over 30,000 Marathas perishing in battle, another 10,000 being killed while retreating, and another 10,000 reported missing. After the battle, 50,000 Maratha camp followers were massacred or sold into slavery. The loss at Panipat resulted in the end of Maratha influence in Northern India. The day after the battle, Ahmad Shah entered the city of Panipat wearing jewels such as the Koh-i-Noor. The Afghan troops massacred any male over the age of fourteen and enslaved the woman and children of the city. Ahmad Shah made a pilgrimage to the tomb of Bu Ali Shah Qalandar, and then left Panipat on the 19th of July to enter Delhi.
The Final Years
Following the Third Battle of Panipat, Ahmad Shah's focus shifted to consolidating his power and dealing with internal rebellions. In 1758, Nasir Khan, the ruler of the Khanate of Kalat, declared his independence from Ahmad Shah. Attempts to conciliate and have Nasir Khan return to Afghan suzerainty failed, prompting Ahmad Shah to dispatch a force under Shah Wali Khan, which was defeated at Pringuez, forcing their retreat to Quetta. Informed of the defeat, Ahmad Shah raised his own force and marched against Kalat in the summer of 1758. He met Nasir Khan in battle at Mastung, where the Kalat forces were defeated, prompting Nasir Khan's withdrawal to Kalat city, which Ahmad Shah then besieged. The siege of Kalat continued for forty days to no avail, and numerous storming attempts by the Afghans failed. Nasir Khan, beleaguered of having been trapped in his capital, opened peace negotiations with the Afghans, apologizing for his rebellion. Ahmad Shah, having no intentions to annex Kalat or to bestow the province unto another governor, reaffirmed Nasir Khan in his position. A treaty was made, stipulating that Nasir Khan would re-enter and recognize the suzerainty of Ahmad Shah, but he would pay no tribute and furnish troops when called upon for war by the Shah. After the treaty, Ahmad Shah married a cousin of Nasir Khan. Months later, a dervish began a revolt by having an individual named Mir Khush Khan Durrani proclaimed king. This rebellion, however, was crushed with the dervish who instigated the revolt being executed, and Mir Khush Khan being blinded. Ahmad Shah's later years were marked by a relentless series of campaigns to maintain control over the Punjab and to subjugate the Sikhs. He led numerous invasions against the Sikhs to maintain control over the Punjab, as the Sikhs had forged an alliance with Adina Beg, who had fled from Punjab during Ahmad Shah's fourth invasion. Jahan Khan led a campaign against Adina Beg in the Jalandhar Doab, pillaging the region. Adina Beg acquiesced to submitting tribute, but ignored summons to the Afghan court in Lahore. On one such occasion of being summoned, Adina Beg refused to trust Jahan Khan and fled to the Hill states, where he forged an alliance with Vadbhag Singh Sodhi and Jassa Singh Ahluwalia, the leader of the Dal Khalsa. Jahan Khan dispatched a force under Murad Khan in response, who met the alliance at the battle of Mahilpur, where the Afghans were defeated, resulting in the looting of the Jalandhar Doab. More troops from Lahore were sent to quell the alliance but all of them were defeated, allowing the Sikhs to plunder the suburbs of Lahore. Years of nonstop campaigning took a toll on his health, and he died in 1772 in Maruf, being buried in his own mausoleum in Kandahar. Throughout his reign, Ahmad Shah fought over fifteen major military campaigns. Nine of them were centered in India, three in Khorasan, and three in Afghan Turkestan. Having rarely lost a battle, historians widely recognize Ahmad Shah as a brilliant military leader and tactician, typically being compared to military leaders such as Marlborough, Mahmud of Ghazni, Babur, and Nader Shah. Ahmad Shah has been described as one of the greatest military leaders of eighteenth century Asia, as well the "greatest general of Asia of his time", and as one of the greatest conquerors in Asian history. He is often regarded as the founder of modern Afghanistan, and Afghans often refer to him as Ahmad Shāh Bābā, meaning "Ahmad Shah the Father". In historical sources, his tribe's name is interchangeably used between Abdali and Durrani, and he is commonly referred to by names including Ahmad Shah Abdali. Eventually, Ahmad Shah would forbid the usage of the old tribal name of Abdali, rather insisting on the usage of Durrani instead, an act likely done to ward off other rival Abdali claimants. His death in 1772 marked the end of an era of constant warfare, leaving behind a legacy that would shape the geopolitical landscape of South and Central Asia for centuries to come.