Durrani Empire
In June of that year a loya jirga was called into session. The gathering lasted for nine days near the city of Kandahar. Two chief contestants emerged from the crowd: Hajji Jamal Khan of the Mohammadzai lineage and Ahmad Khan of the Sadozai. A noted darwish named Mohammad Sabir Khan rose in the assembly to speak. He had earlier predicted that Ahmad Khan would be the leader of the Afghans. Sabir Khan placed some wheat or barley sheaves in Ahmad Khan's turban. This act crowned him Badshah, Durr-i-Dauran, meaning Shah, Pearl of the Age. The jirga concluded with Ahmad Shah Durrani being selected as the new leader of the Afghans. Despite being younger than other contenders, he belonged to a respectable family of political background. His father had served as Governor of Herat who died in a battle defending the Afghans. This event marked the definitive appearance of an Afghan political entity independent of both the Persian and Mughal empires.
Under Ahmad, the Afghans invaded India on eight occasions. They subjugated parts of Kashmir and the majority of Punjab. In early 1757, he sacked Delhi but permitted Mughal emperor Alamgir II to remain in nominal control. The ruler acknowledged Afghan suzerainty over regions south of the Indus River till Sutlej river. To counter the Afghans, Peshwa Balaji Bajirao sent Raghunathrao. He defeated the Rohillas and Afghan garrisons in Punjab. Timur Shah was ousted from India along with his court. Lahore, Multan, Kashmir and other subahs came under Maratha rule. Upon his return to Kandahar in 1757, Ahmad was forced to return to India again. He declared a jihad against the Marathas. Warriors from various Afghan tribes joined his army including the Baloch people under Khan of Kalat Mir Nasir I of Kalat. Suba Khan Tanoli was selected as army chief of all military forces. By 1760, the Maratha groups had coalesced into a big enough army under Sadashivrao Bhau. Panipat became the scene of confrontation between two warring contenders for northern India.
The Third Battle of Panipat took place on the 14th of January 1761. It was fought between largely Muslim and largely Hindu armies along a twelve-kilometer front. The Durranis decisively defeated the Marathas in this engagement. The defeat resulted in heavy losses for the Marathas. Peshwa Balaji Rao received news of the defeat on the 24th of January 1761 at Bhilsa while leading a reinforcement force. Besides several important generals, he lost his own son Vishwasrao in the battle. He died on the 23rd of June 1761 and was succeeded by his younger son Madhav Rao I. Ahmad Shah Durrani was famous for winning wars much larger than his army. The victory at Panipat was the high point of Ahmad Shah's power. However, even prior to his death, the empire began to unravel. In 1762, Ahmad Shah crossed the passes from Afghanistan for the sixth time to subdue the Sikhs. From this time and on, domination and control of the Empire began to loosen. By the time of Durrani's death he had lost parts of Punjab to the Sikhs.
In 1763, Ahmad Shah dispatched an embassy to the Qing emperor Qianlong. His aims remain unknown but the letter likely dedicated itself to conquests and victory at Panipat alongside Qing expansion. The letter positioned expansions as bringing order and stability to areas overrun with rebels. The Qing emperor ignored the effective threat. When the Afghan embassy arrived in Beijing, chief envoy Khwaja Mirhan refused to kowtow before the Qing emperor. Qing officials demanded he kowtow, which Mirhan eventually acquiesced. This incident damaged relations and Qianlong cut ties following this. No immediate consequence occurred and the envoy was shown favor. Ahmad Shah's gifts included four horses painted by court painter Giuseppe Castiglione. In August 1768, Qianlong was informed of the Afghan invasion of Badakhshan led by Shah Wali Khan. A Qing agent named Yunggui held that military intervention would be irrational. Qianlong strictly forbade any interference despite threats to the empire. Within the year, Ahmad Shah occupied Badakhshan and Sultan Shah was executed. Qianlong recognized Afghans as a rival power unable to be treated like tributaries.
After Ahmad Shah's death in 1772, his son Timur Shah became ruler. The city of Kabul became new capital while Peshawar served as winter capital. The empire began to crumble by this time. It faced territorial losses of Peshawar, Multan and Kashmir to the Sikh Empire in early 19th century. After Timur Shah died, three sons contended for succession. Zaman Shah became shah at age twenty-three. Many half-brothers were imprisoned upon arrival in capital. The quarrels among Timur's descendants threw Afghanistan into turmoil. Zaman soon began removing prominent Barakzai leaders from positions of power. Painda Khan and chiefs of Nurzai and Alizai clans were executed. Painda Khan's son fled to Iran and pledged support to Mahmud Shah. Clans joined forces with rebels and took Kandahar without bloodshed. Mahmud Shah marched to Kabul where he met Zaman Shah on way from Ghanzi. Zaman Shah was decisively defeated including portions fleeing to Mahmud Shah cause. Mahmud ordered lancing of Zaman Shah eyes before succeeding him. By 1818 Sadozai rulers controlled little more than Kabul within 160-kilometer radius.
The Sikhs started to rise under command of Sikh chief Ranjit Singh. He succeeded in wresting power from Zaman's forces. Later when Zaman was blinded by his brother, Ranjit gave him asylum in Punjab. The Durrani Empire lost control over Kashmir to the Sikh Empire in Battle of Shopian in 1819. Ayub Shah was himself later deposed and presumably killed in 1823. The dynasty would become heirs of Afghanistan for generations until Dost Muhammad Khan and Barakzai dynasty deposed Durrani dynasty in Kabul. This led to supersession by Emirate of Afghanistan. The empire per se ended within fifty years of Ahmad Shah death. Much territory conquered by Ahmad fell to others during half century. They alienated other tribes and lineages among Durrani Pashtuns. The efforts to impose true monarchy on truculent Pashtun tribes proved unsuccessful.
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Common questions
When was the Durrani Empire founded and by whom?
The Durrani Empire was founded in 1747 when Ahmad Shah Durrani was selected as leader of the Afghans at a loya jirga near Kandahar. The gathering lasted for nine days before he was crowned Badshah, Durr-i-Dauran.
What happened during the Third Battle of Panipat involving the Durrani Empire?
The Third Battle of Panipat took place on the 14th of January 1761 between the Durranis and Maratha armies along a twelve-kilometer front. The Durranis decisively defeated the Marathas, resulting in heavy losses including the death of Peshwa Balaji Rao's son Vishwasrao.
How did the Qing emperor Qianlong respond to the Durrani embassy sent in 1763?
Qing officials demanded that chief envoy Khwaja Mirhan kowtow before the emperor, which he eventually acquiesced to after refusing initially. This incident damaged relations and led Qianlong to cut ties with the Afghan empire despite receiving gifts like four horses painted by Giuseppe Castiglione.
When did the Durrani Empire lose control over Kashmir to the Sikh Empire?
The Durrani Empire lost control over Kashmir to the Sikh Empire in the Battle of Shopian in 1819. By this time, Sadozai rulers controlled little more than Kabul within a 160-kilometer radius due to internal turmoil and external pressures.
Who succeeded Ahmad Shah Durrani as ruler of the Durrani Empire?
Ahmad Shah Durrani died in 1772 and his son Timur Shah became ruler immediately afterward. Timur Shah moved the capital to Kabul while making Peshawar the winter capital before the empire began to crumble under his successors.