Italy in the Middle Ages
In 476, an Eastern Germanic general named Odoacer deposed Romulus Augustus, the traditional last Western Roman Emperor. This event marked the end of imperial rule in Italy and began a new era of foreign domination. Odoacer ruled for seventeen years as rex gentium, theoretically under the suzerainty of the eastern Roman emperor Zeno but practically independent. He maintained the existing administration and granted religious freedoms to Christians while fighting against Vandals who occupied Sicily.
Odoacer's reign ended when Emperor Zeno sent Ostrogoths into Italy in 489. On the 25th of February 493, Theodoric the Great defeated Odoacer and became king of the Ostrogoths. Theodoric had lived long in Constantinople and is considered a Romanized German who ruled through Roman personnel. His Gothic minority constituted an aristocracy of landowners and militaries, yet their influence remained minimal over the Latin population subject to Roman laws.
Theodoric's reign brought recovery with repaired infrastructures and expanded frontiers. The economy was well cared for, and Latin culture flourished with figures like Boethius, Theodoric's minister. However, his successors failed to match his capabilities. In the early 6th century, the Eastern Empire invaded Italy under generals Belisarius and Narses, ending the Ostrogothic kingdom after years of warfare that concluded in 552.
After the Lombard invasion, popes nominally remained subject to the eastern emperor but received little help from Constantinople. They filled the lack of stately power by providing essential services like food for the needy and protecting Rome from Lombard incursions. This process led popes to build an independent state, establishing what would become the Papal States.
In 751, the Lombards seized Ravenna and abolished the Exarchate of Ravenna, ending Byzantine presence in central Italy. Facing new Lombard offensive threats, the papacy appealed to Franks for aid. Frankish forces defeated the Lombards in 756 and gave the papacy legal authority over all of central Italy, creating the Papal States.
The Church became the only stable institution and source of learning in Western Europe during this politically unstable period. Even barbarians relied on clerics to administer their conquests. Catholic monastic orders like the Benedictines played major roles in economic life and preservation of classical culture. By the end of the 8th century, popes definitely aspired to independence through alliance with the Carolingian dynasty of the Franks.
Cividale del Friuli was the first main center to fall when the Lombards invaded Italy after Byzantine armies withdrew. The Lombards soon overran most of the peninsula, establishing a Kingdom with capital in Pavia divided into dukedoms. Areas remaining under Byzantine control became the Exarchate of Ravenna, while Southern Italy contained semi-independent Lombard duchies of Spoleto and Benevento.
Southern Italy remained divided among two Lombard duchies of Spoleto and Benevento who accepted Charlemagne's suzerainty only formally in 812. Coastal cities like Gaeta, Amalfi, Naples on the Tyrrhenian Sea, and Venice on the Adriatic Sea became enclaves increasingly independent of Byzantium. A conquest of Benevento would have meant total encompassment of Papal territories, so Charlemagne avoided such moves for relationship reasons with the Pope.
In 839, Sicard was assassinated, triggering civil war that illustrated political power still rested largely with land-owning aristocracy. Some chose Radelchis I, treasurer and assassin, while others chose Siconulf of Salerno installed at Salerno. This decade-long civil war allowed gastaldates of Benevento to entrench independence, especially Capua which sided with Siconulf.
In the 11th century, Normans occupied Lombard and Byzantine possessions in Southern Italy, ending six-century-old presence of both powers in the peninsula. Unlike Norman conquest of England which took place over few years after one decisive battle, conquest of Southern Italy was product of decades and many battles, few decisive. Many territories were conquered independently before being unified into one state.
The conquest was unplanned and unorganized yet just as permanent compared to English invasion. Thanks to marriage between Emperor Henry VI and Constance, heiress to Sicilian throne, Kingdom of Sicily entered personal union with Holy Roman Empire from 1194 to 1254. The Kingdom of Sicily lasted under various dynasties until the 19th century.
Byzantine emperor Manuel I Komnenos made last attempt in 1155 to reassert authority in Southern Italy but failed. In 1158, Byzantines left Italy entirely. Meanwhile, independent city-states were subdued during same century when Normans also ended Muslim rule in Sicily.
During 11th century, political development unique to Italy transformed medieval communes into powerful city-states modeled on ancient Roman Republicanism. Cities like Venice, Milan, Genoa, Florence, Siena, Pisa, Bologna rose to great political power becoming major financial and trading centers. These states paved way for Italian Renaissance and end of perceived obscurity of Middle Ages.
Northern cities transitioned out from feudalism so society became primarily based on merchants and commerce. Compared to feudal and absolute monarchies, Italian independent communes and merchant republics enjoyed relative political freedom boosting scientific and artistic advancement. Milan, Florence and Venice played crucial innovative role in financial development devising main instruments and practices of banking.
In 960, King Otto I conquered Kingdom of Italy after being summoned by Pope John XII. From that time kings of Italy were always also kings of Germany, making Italy constituent kingdom of Holy Roman Empire. Emperor or subordinate ruler nominally controlled Northern Italian communes while spending most time in Germany leaving little central authority.
From 11th to 13th centuries, maritime republics built fleets of ships both for protection and to support extensive trade networks across Mediterranean leading to essential role in Crusades. Venice, Genoa, Pisa, Amalfi, Ragusa, Ancona, Gaeta and Noli established colonies as far as Black Sea often controlling most trade with Byzantine Empire and Islamic Mediterranean world.
Italian cities such as Venice became international trading and banking hubs and intellectual crossroads thanks to favorable position between East and West. The maritime republics especially Venice and Genoa soon became Europe's main gateways to trade with the East. These powers developed sophisticated naval capabilities enabling them to dominate Mediterranean commerce for centuries.
During same period, southern states' knights and mercenaries became internationally renowned developing in reaction to statecraft and knights of Low Countries, Kingdom of France, and Holy Roman Empire. This military prowess complemented their commercial dominance creating powerful independent entities.
The papacy regained its authority starting long struggle with empire about both ecclesiastical and secular matters through Investiture Controversy. In 12th century, Italian cities within Holy Roman Empire launched successful effort to win autonomy from imperial control. A Lombard League of communes defeated Emperor Frederick Barbarossa at Battle of Legnano in 1176 making north Italy land of quasi-independent city-states until 19th century.
Revolts were funded by Byzantine Empire hoping to expel Germanic peoples from Italy. This sponsorship was part of 12th-century Byzantine effort to regain influence once held on peninsula during reign of Justinian I. The conflict culminated with confrontation between Pope Gregory VII and Henry IV leading to latter's Walk to Canossa in 1077.
Throughout this period, some coastal regions and all of southern Italy remained under Byzantine or Lombard control while imperial authority never extended much south of Italian Peninsula. The separation with Eastern world continued increasing as process completed at beginning of 9th century except for Sicily, Calabria, Puglia and Venice.
Black Plague ravaged Europe during 1340s-50s wiping out almost half continent's population. Particularly detrimental was that most victims were young adults in prime working years leaving behind hourglass population structure comprised heavily of children and older people with fewer in-between. France traditionally had high birth rates but Italy's fertility was lower to begin with especially after plague ravaged region.
Many cities such as Florence, Verona, and Arezzo had populations where more than 15% of people were over age 60. Since overall life expectancy in Europe did not increase by significant margin during period, aging cohort in some areas can be almost completely blamed on effects of Plague. Wealthy households had larger numbers of children than poor while countryside became swiftly depopulated after plague as surviving young people moved en masse to cities.
Italian Renaissance originated in 14th-century Tuscany centered in cities of Florence and Siena later having great impact in Venice where remains of ancient Greek culture brought together providing humanist scholars with new texts. Beginning in 1320 upheaval in Florentine wool industry saw wool textiles become Italy's most important manufacture for export by late 14th century.
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Common questions
Who deposed Romulus Augustus in 476 to end imperial rule in Italy?
Odoacer, an Eastern Germanic general, deposed Romulus Augustus in 476. This event marked the end of imperial rule in Italy and began a new era of foreign domination.
When did Theodoric the Great defeat Odoacer and become king of the Ostrogoths?
Theodoric the Great defeated Odoacer on the 25th of February 493. He became king of the Ostrogoths after ruling for seventeen years under the suzerainty of Emperor Zeno.
What caused the formation of the Papal States during the Middle Ages?
Frankish forces defeated the Lombards in 756 and gave the papacy legal authority over all of central Italy. This action created the Papal States after the Lombards seized Ravenna and abolished the Exarchate of Ravenna in 751.
Which cities became major financial and trading centers during the Italian Renaissance?
Venice, Milan, Genoa, Florence, Siena, Pisa, Bologna, and Ragusa rose to great political power as major financial and trading centers. These maritime republics developed sophisticated naval capabilities enabling them to dominate Mediterranean commerce for centuries.
How did the Black Plague affect population demographics in Italy during the 1340s-50s?
Black Plague ravaged Europe during the 1340s-50s wiping out almost half continent's population with particularly detrimental effects on young adults. Cities such as Florence, Verona, and Arezzo had populations where more than 15% of people were over age 60 due to this demographic shift.