Germans
The English word Germans comes from the ancient ethnonym Germani, a term Roman writers used to describe peoples living east of the Rhine river. Julius Caesar first recorded this name in the 1st century BC while documenting his conquests in Gaul. He defined the Rhine as a boundary between the lands of Gaul and Germania, noting that these groups originated on the eastern side of the waterway. Archaeologists trace the roots of these early Germanic languages back to around 500 BCE, spreading from regions near the Elbe river toward the west. The modern German endonym Deutsche derives from the Old High German word diutisc, meaning ethnic or relating to the people. This linguistic shift began appearing in texts at least by the 8th century, marking the emergence of a distinct identity among speakers within the Holy Roman Empire. Variants of the same root also appeared in the Low Countries for dialects now known as Dutch, spoken today in both Belgium and the Netherlands.
A distinct Kingdom of Germany separated from the Frankish Empire under the Ottonian dynasty during the 10th century, forming the core of what became the Holy Roman Empire. Charlemagne had previously unified large parts of Europe under the Carolingian Empire before his death in 814. Following the Treaty of Verdun in 843, East Francia emerged as the precursor state, eventually ruled by non-Frankish dynasties like Henry the Fowler and Otto I. By the late Middle Ages, power remained decentralized with many small princedoms, cities, and bishoprics operating independently. Leaders of stem duchies such as Bavaria, Franconia, Swabia, Thuringia, and Saxony often elected weak kings to preserve their own autonomy. The church competed fiercely with noble families for influence while German speakers participated in five Crusades between the 11th and 13th centuries. A massive eastward migration known as Ostsiedlung moved populations into Slavic regions, where they assimilated over generations. Cities like Gdańsk developed significant German merchant communities, and the Teutonic Knights established Prussia after conquering Old Prussians in the 13th century.
The Protestant Reformation began when Martin Luther pushed for reforms within the Catholic Church during the early 16th century. This religious schism triggered the Thirty Years War, a conflict that tore apart the Holy Roman Empire and killed millions of Germans. The Peace of Westphalia signed in 1648 ended the war but significantly reduced the central authority of the Holy Roman Emperor. Charles V and his Habsburg dynasty had defended Roman Catholicism against rising Protestant forces throughout Europe. After the war, Protestant Prussia emerged under the House of Hohenzollern as one of the most powerful states. The introduction of printing by Johannes Gutenberg contributed to new understandings of faith and reason across the region. By the late 17th century, trade increased and urban centers formed leagues like the Hanseatic League to protect their economic interests. These commercial networks allowed German merchants to settle cities throughout Northern Europe beyond traditional borders. The empire itself remained largely decentralized while Habsburg personal power grew outside core German lands through inheritance of kingdoms including Hungary and Bohemia.
German nationalism began to grow after centuries of political fragmentation, with intellectuals like Johann Gottfried Herder articulating identity rooted in language during the 18th century. Napoleon dissolved the Holy Roman Empire altogether in 1806, catalyzing a national awakening among Germans. The Congress of Vienna in 1815 left most German states loosely united under the German Confederation dominated by Austria. Prussian revolutionaries attempted to form a unified homeland through the Frankfurt Parliament in 1848 but failed. Otto von Bismarck later expanded Prussian influence using the Zollverein customs union to increase power among German states. Prussia defeated Denmark in the Second Schleswig War and then Austria in the Austro-Prussian War before establishing the North German Confederation. In 1871, the Prussian coalition decisively defeated the Second French Empire in the Franco-Prussian War. After taking Paris, Prussia and allies proclaimed the formation of a united German Empire, annexing Alsace-Lorraine. This unification radically changed society through industrialization, rationalization, secularization, and the rise of capitalism while expanding overseas colonies.
Adolf Hitler came to power democratically in the early 1930s and abolished the Weimar Republic to form the totalitarian Third Reich. His regime murdered six million Jews during the Holocaust while waging military aggression that led to World War II. The war resulted in widespread destruction and deaths of tens of millions of soldiers and civilians across Europe. About 12 million Germans had to flee or were expelled from Eastern Europe following Germany's defeat. The Treaty of Versailles dissolved both the German and Austro-Hungarian Empires, leaving millions as ethnic minorities in newly established countries. Wilhelm II, the last German emperor, was overthrown during the November Revolution which led to the establishment of the Weimar Republic. Austrian-born Hitler defined Germans in specific ways including Austrians, Luxembourgers, eastern Belgians, and so-called Volksdeutsche elsewhere in Europe. Nazi policies expressly excluded citizens of Jewish or Roma background from this definition. Significant damage occurred to German reputation and identity, making nationalism far less confident than before the conflict ended.
West Germany and East Germany became focal points of the Cold War after the country was partitioned following World War II. Millions of Germans were expelled from Central and Eastern Europe during the chaotic years immediately after the war. The two states developed separate identities on historical or ideological lines, distancing themselves from both the Nazi past and each other. Political discourse after reunification in 1990 characterized the idea of shared ethnoculturally defined Germanness while climate became increasingly xenophobic during the 1990s. Today the reunified country is widely regarded as a stabilizing actor in the heart of Europe and promoter of democratic integration. Fears existed that the new nation might resume nationalist politics but these have largely not materialized. Remembrance of the Holocaust known as culture of remembrance has become an integral part of modern German identity. Sixteen Länder make up modern Germany today with strong regional identities persisting despite political unification.
Germans are marked by great regional diversity which makes identifying a single unified culture quite difficult. Arts and sciences have been important parts of German identity for centuries including contributions from writers Johann Wolfgang von Goethe and Friedrich Schiller. Philosophers like Immanuel Kant and composers such as Ludwig van Beethoven and Richard Wagner shaped global cultural landscapes. Modern Standard German is based on High German and Central German though notably not spoken by Volga Germans. About three quarters of the 100 million German speakers worldwide live in Germany where they account for 92 percent of the population. Sizable populations exist in Austria, Switzerland, the United States, Brazil, France, Kazakhstan, Russia, Argentina, Canada, Poland, Italy, Hungary, Australia, South Africa, Chile, Paraguay, and Namibia. Popular dishes include brown bread and stew while Germans consume high amounts of alcohol particularly beer compared to other European peoples. Carnival remains important especially in Southern Germany and the Rhineland alongside festivals like Oktoberfest. A steadily shrinking majority of Germans are Christians with about one third Roman Catholic and another third Protestant while a final third profess no religion.
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Common questions
What is the origin of the word Germans?
The English word Germans comes from the ancient ethnonym Germani, a term Roman writers used to describe peoples living east of the Rhine river. Julius Caesar first recorded this name in the 1st century BC while documenting his conquests in Gaul.
When did the modern endonym Deutsche appear in texts?
This linguistic shift began appearing in texts at least by the 8th century, marking the emergence of a distinct identity among speakers within the Holy Roman Empire. The modern German endonym Deutsche derives from the Old High German word diutisc, meaning ethnic or relating to the people.
Who dissolved the Holy Roman Empire and when did it happen?
Napoleon dissolved the Holy Roman Empire altogether in 1806, catalyzing a national awakening among Germans. This event followed centuries of political fragmentation where intellectuals like Johann Gottfried Herder had articulated identity rooted in language during the 18th century.
How many Jews were murdered during the Holocaust under Adolf Hitler's regime?
His regime murdered six million Jews during the Holocaust while waging military aggression that led to World War II. About 12 million Germans had to flee or were expelled from Eastern Europe following Germany's defeat.
What percentage of the population in Germany speaks German today?
About three quarters of the 100 million German speakers worldwide live in Germany where they account for 92 percent of the population. Modern Standard German is based on High German and Central German though notably not spoken by Volga Germans.