Second Schleswig War

• 1. Origins of Conflict

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  On the 18th of November 1863, King Christian IX signed the November Constitution in Copenhagen. This document tied the Duchy of Schleswig more closely to Denmark than ever before. The German Confederation viewed this act as a direct violation of the London Protocol from 1852. Frederick VII had died without an heir acceptable to Germany just weeks earlier. Succession disputes over Schleswig and Holstein had simmered since the First Schleswig War ended in 1851. The duchies were ethnically mixed with Danish, Low German, and North Frisian speakers. Northern parts spoke Danish while southern areas shifted toward German by the early 19th century. German elites held power through land ownership and clergy positions. They wished to join a Greater Germany rather than remain under Danish rule. Danes saw Schleswig as an ancient core region dating back to Viking times near Hedeby. The Danevirke fortification lines built around 400, 500 CE symbolized centuries of Danish presence. Prussia planned to construct the Kiel Canal but could not do so while Denmark controlled Holstein. Tolls charged on ships passing through Danish straits created economic grievances for both sides. Liberal ideas spreading after 1820 intensified nationalist currents across the region.

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• 2. International Diplomacy

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  Britain maintained the world's most powerful navy yet possessed only a small volunteer army. London needed continental allies to provide ground forces during any European crisis. The Crimean War poisoned relations between Britain and Russia making cooperation impossible. American Civil War blockades caused cotton shortages that damaged British economy severely. Many Americans believed Britain supported the Confederacy creating acute Anglo-American tensions. Most British troops garrisoned India or Canada guarding against potential invasion threats. Lord Palmerston gave a speech in July 1863 suggesting possible intervention if war broke out. This statement raised exaggerated hopes in Copenhagen about British support. France under Napoleon III took a pro-Prussian line regarding the duchies. Napoleon invited twenty European leaders to discuss revisions in Paris though no congress occurred. He openly rejected decisions from the Congress of Vienna established in 1815. Tsar Alexander II saw a stronger Prussia as beneficial for weakening France. Russian foreign policy shifted dramatically after the Crimean War ending in 1856. St. Petersburg welcomed developments changing the European power structure away from status quo. Austria provided great power status within the German union while remaining reluctant partners with Prussia. No major power intervened militarily despite Denmark's desperate diplomatic appeals.

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• 3. Prussian Military Strategy

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  Otto von Bismarck became minister-president of Prussia in 1862 with orders to resolve internal political crises. The Landtag refused to vote taxes needed for military modernization proposed by General von Roon. Bismarck claimed there existed a hole in the constitution allowing tax collection without parliamentary consent. He privately admitted this legal argument was nonsensical yet proceeded anyway. His blood and iron speech promised solutions through force rather than talks. Liberals supported including Schleswig-Holstein into a unified German state aligning with his goals. Launching war against Denmark would demonstrate value of stronger Prussian Army justifying illegal taxes. Field Marshal Friedrich Graf von Wrangel commanded combined Prussian-Austrian forces during invasion. Austrian troops led by General Ludwig von Gablenz attacked Dannevirke frontally on the 1st of February 1864. Prussian forces struck Danish fortifications at Mysunde trying to bypass defenses via frozen Schlei inlet. Six hours passed before they retreated unable to take positions held by Danes. On the 3rd of February 1864 Austrian forces pushed Danes back near Königshügel during snowstorms. Prince Friedrich Karl later became supreme commander conquering Jutland entirely by spring. Prussian army grew from initial 38,400 men adding 20,000 reinforcements plus 64 guns throughout campaign.

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• 4. Danish Defense Failures

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  The Danevirke line leaned on bodies of water or marshes at both ends creating vulnerabilities. In early 1864 these waters froze solid allowing Germans to bypass the position easily. First attempt failed near Missunde but eventually Germans appeared in rear compelling abandonment order. Lieutenant General Christian Julius De Meza withdrew army to Flensburg on night of the 5th of February 1864. Retreat caused deaths and capture of 600 men including ten who froze to death alone. Hasty withdrawal forced Danes to abandon heavy artillery crucial for defense. Railway from south to Flensburg never properly used during evacuation leaving much equipment behind. Soldiers marched northwards through north gale with driven snow lasting four days without rest. Men and horses struggled standing while carts overturned under burden of supplies. Column stretched endlessly as slowest component dictated pace of entire movement. Distance covered exceeded twenty miles though straight-line distance was shorter due to detours. Fighting rearguard actions against pursuing Austrians added casualties near Oversø where 9th and 20th regiments lost 600 more men. Ten soldiers died of hypothermia that day alone. Some units stayed outside decks nearly frozen while others laid heaps three deep upon arrival exhausted.

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• 5. Treaty of Vienna

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  Preliminaries signed the 1st of August 1864 renounced all Danish rights in duchies favoring Austria and Prussia. Final Treaty of Vienna concluded the 30th of October 1864 ceding Schleswig Holstein and Lauenburg officially. Denmark kept island of Ärø plus town Ribe surrounding land and eight parishes from Tyrstrup Herred south Kolding. Land area decreased by forty percent reducing population from 2.6 million down to 1.6 million total. Frontier retreated approximately 250 kilometers measured from Duchy of Lauenburg corner to Kongeå river line. When army returned to Copenhagen received no cheering unlike previous victorious returns after First Schleswig War. About 200,000 Danes came under German rule following loss of territory. Peace of Prague confirmed cession in 1866 promising plebiscite deciding north Schleswig return later. Provision set aside unilaterally resolution passed 1878 by Prussia and Austria combined forces. French control over power arrangements lost precipitating rise Germany eventually culminating First World War decades ahead.

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• 6. Humanitarian Impact

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  Second Schleswig War fought first time after Red Cross movement established internationally in 1863. Both nations already had national societies formed before conflict began outbreak hostilities. International Committee sent observers evaluate work performed by local groups during fighting season. Hospitals established providing impartial care wounded soldiers regardless side they fought upon. Newspapers covered activities extensively drawing attention nascent organization globally. Volunteers joined movement inspired by events unfolding across Danish peninsula. Infirmary Flag adopted 1850 replaced 1870 becoming symbol humanitarian aid efforts worldwide. War drew significant public interest helping establish foundation future international relief operations. Observers documented conditions treating injured men exposed harsh winter elements throughout campaign duration.

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• 7. Long-Term Consequences

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  War considered national trauma for Denmark affecting generations thereafter psychologically deeply. Pan-Scandinavism movement shifted focus literature language instead political unification following defeat. British government suffered diplomatic setback mediating conflict deterring Prussian aggression unsuccessfully. Danish forces remained outside frontiers until NATO bombing Yugoslavia occurred 1999 nearly century later. Thousands conscripted Imperial German Army World War I suffering huge casualties Western Front still cause resentment families southern Jutland today. German offer joint centenary anniversary 1966 rejected directly because of historical grievances lingering unresolved. Plebiscite North Schleswig returned Denmark Versailles Conference 1919 based Woodrow Wilson Fourteen Points granted request Allied Powers. Bismarck triumph won support Prussian liberals ending liberal challenge state permanently. Liberals ceased opposing him becoming supporters celebrating violation constitution 1850 as greatness sign. Personality cult developed after his death portraying figure superhuman larger-than-life great redeemer achieving unification. Conservative narratives used memory delegitimizing Weimar Republic claiming democratic parliament weak ineffective compared ruthless dictator needed recognized powerful state globally.

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