Georgian era
On the 1st of August 1714, Queen Anne died without surviving children. Her death triggered an immediate succession crisis that ended centuries of Stuart rule. George Louis, Elector of Hanover, arrived in London to become King George I. He spoke little English and cared more about his German homeland than British affairs. This absence created a power vacuum at the center of government. Robert Walpole seized the initiative during this gap. He emerged as Britain's first de facto Prime Minister. His new style of cabinet governance filled the royal void. The king's limited English and disinterest in day-to-day British affairs left a vacuum that was filled by the rise of modern parliamentary democracy. This enabled Robert Walpole to seize the initiative and emerge as Britain's first de facto Prime Minister; his new style of cabinet governance filled the royal vacuum.
The transition secured Protestant succession but prevented Catholic restoration under James Stuart. The result was constitutional continuity after the turbulent Stuart period. However, the king was widely disliked as a foreigner who was far more interested in Hanover than in Britain. This fueled dissent and strengthened Jacobite plans to overthrow the Hanoverians. Corruption was widespread, exemplified by the South Sea Bubble scandal that financially ruined many investors. The king himself lost heavily in it. His bitter relationship with his son (the future George II) created political factions and instability at court. George was ridiculed by many of his British subjects as unintelligent and wooden. His mistreatment of his wife, Sophia Dorothea, became something of a scandal.
Continual warfare defined the Georgian era, with France serving as the primary enemy for decades. Major episodes included the Seven Years' War from 1754 to 1763, known in America as the French and Indian War. The American Revolutionary War followed from 1775 to 1783. The French Revolutionary Wars lasted from 1792 to 1802. The Napoleonic Wars concluded in 1815. Britain won most conflicts except for the American Revolution where the combined weight of the United States, France, Spain and the Netherlands overwhelmed Britain. The loss of the 13 American Colonies was a national disaster.
Commentators at home and abroad speculated on the end of Britain as a great power. In Europe, wars with France dragged on for nearly a quarter of a century between 1793 and 1815. Britain organized coalition after coalition using its superb financial system to subsidize infantry forces. It built up its Navy to maintain control of the seas. Victory over Napoleon came at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805 under Admiral Lord Nelson. Another victory arrived at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815 under the Duke of Wellington. These triumphs brought a sense of triumphalism and political reaction.
The expansion of empire in Asia was primarily the work of the British East India Company under Robert Clive. Captain James Cook used Royal Navy resources to develop the Empire and make many scientific discoveries especially in Australia and the Pacific. Instead of trying to recover lost colonies in North America, the British built up in Asia a largely new Second British Empire. That new empire flourished during the Victorian and Edwardian eras which were to follow.
The British economy tripled in size during the 18th century but growth was only 12% from 1720 to 1740. There was some expansion of trade and commerce building on financial innovations of previous decades. The South Sea Bubble of 1720 was a brief setback that also led to improved financial regulation. The consolidation of Whig party dominance brought political stability and supported policies favoring commercial interests and religious toleration for Protestant dissenters.
By the 1720s Britain was one of the most prosperous countries in the world. Daniel Defoe boasted: we are the most diligent nation in the world. Vast trade, rich manufactures, mighty wealth, universal correspondence, and happy success have been constant companions of England, and given us the title of an industrious people. While other major powers were primarily motivated towards territorial gains, Britain had different primary interests. Its main diplomatic goal besides protecting homeland from invasion was building a worldwide trading network for merchants, manufacturers, shippers and financiers.
This required a hegemonic Royal Navy so powerful that no rival could sweep its ships from world trading routes or invade British Isles. London government enhanced private sector by incorporating numerous privately financed London-based companies for establishing trading posts and opening import-export businesses across world. Each received monopoly of trade to specified geographical region. First enterprise was Muscovy Company set up in 1555 to trade with Russia. Other prominent enterprises included East India Company and Hudson's Bay Company in Canada. Company of Royal Adventurers Trading to Africa had been set up in 1662 to trade in gold, ivory and slaves in Africa; it was re-established as Royal African Company in 1672 and focused on slave trade.
South Sea Bubble exploded in scandal. South Sea Company was private business corporation supposedly set up much like other trading companies with focus on South America. Actual purpose was renegotiate previous high-interest government loans amounting to £31 million through market manipulation and speculation. It issued stock four times in 1720 reaching about 8,000 investors. Prices kept soaring every day from £130 share to £1,000 with insiders making huge paper profits. Bubble collapsed overnight ruining many speculators. Investigations showed bribes reached into high places even to king. Future prime minister Robert Walpole managed wind it down with minimal political and economic damage although some suffering extreme loss fled exile or committed suicide.
Scottish Enlightenment was small cohesive group friends David Hume Adam Smith Adam Ferguson others knew intimately talked incessantly. Education priority Scotland local level especially four universities. Enlightenment culture based close readings new books intense discussions daily intellectual gathering places Edinburgh Select Society later Poker Club Scotland ancient universities St Andrews Glasgow Edinburgh Aberdeen.
Thinkers Scottish Enlightenment asserted importance human reason combined rejection authority could not justified reason. Scotland Enlightenment characterized thoroughgoing empiricism practicality chief values improvement virtue practical benefit individual society whole. Among fields rapidly advanced philosophy economics history architecture medicine. Leaders included Francis Hutcheson David Hume Adam Smith Dugald Stewart Thomas Reid William Robertson Henry Home Lord Kames Adam Ferguson John Playfair Joseph Black James Hutton.
English Enlightenment debated existence scholars majority textbooks standard surveys make room English Enlightenment. Some European surveys include England others ignore but do include coverage major intellectuals Joseph Addison Edward Gibbon John Locke Isaac Newton Alexander Pope Joshua Reynolds. According Derek Hirst 1640s 1650s saw revived economy characterized growth manufacturing elaboration financial credit instruments commercialization communication gentry found time leisure activities horse racing bowling high culture important innovations development mass market music increased scientific research expansion publishing trends discussed depth newly established coffee houses.
Science and medicine British sponsored numerous scientists made major discoveries small laboratories. Joseph Priestley investigated electricity Chemist Henry Cavendish identified hydrogen 1772 Daniel Rutherford isolated nitrogen 1774 while Priestley discovered oxygen ammonia. Antiquarians archaeologists mapped past Rosemary Sweet Antiquaries discovery past eighteenth-century Britain A&C Black 2004.
In medicine 1717 Lady Mary Wortley Montagu introduced inoculation against smallpox Britain by 1740 wide usage Guy's Hospital founded 1721 Royal Infirmary Edinburgh 1729 Queen Charlotte's maternity hospital 1739 Middlesex Hospital 1745 Asylums mentally ill established notably Bethel Hospital Norwich 1713 ward incurable lunatics Guy's Hospital 1728 lunatic hospitals Manchester 1766 York 1777 York first called asylum.
High culture flourished Georgian era Roger Fry James Bolivar Manson eds Georgian Art 1760-1820 Introductory Review English Painting Architecture Sculpture Ceramics Glass Metalwork Furniture Textiles Other Arts During Reign George III 1929 online.
Georgian society preoccupations well portrayed novels writers Daniel Defoe Jonathan Swift Samuel Richardson Henry Fielding Laurence Sterne Mary Shelley Jane Austen characterized architecture Robert Adam John Nash James Wyatt emergence Gothic Revival style hearkened back supposed golden age building design.
Flowering arts vividly shown emergence Romantic poets principally through Samuel Taylor Coleridge William Wordsworth Percy Bysshe Shelley William Blake John Keats Lord Byron Robert Burns. Their work ushered new era poetry characterized vivid colorful language evocative elevating ideas themes Aleksandr Georgievich David Minaevich Gamezardashvili Baramidze Georgian literature Minerva Group 2001.
Paintings Thomas Gainsborough Sir Joshua Reynolds young J.M.W. Turner John Constable illustrated changing world Georgian period work designers Capability Brown landscape designer.
Fine examples distinctive Georgian architecture Edinburgh New Town Georgian Dublin Grainger Town Newcastle upon Tyne Georgian Quarter Liverpool much Bristol Bath.
Music John Field Handel Haydn Clementi Johann Christian Bach William Boyce Mozart Beethoven Mendelssohn popular England time.
Grand Tour height coincided 18th century associated Georgian high society custom saw young upper-class Englishmen traveling Italy way France Netherlands intellectual cultural purposes Notable historian Edward Gibbon remarked Grand Tour useful intellectual self-improvement E Chaney Beckford Interpretation Dreams Waking Thoughts Incidents Beckford Society Annual Lectures London 2004 pp 25-50 journey stay abroad usually take year eventually lead basis acquisition spread art collections back England fashions paintings Italy custom helped popularize macaroni style soon become fashionable time Amelia Rauser Hair Authenticity Self Made Macaroni Johns Hopkins University Press Fall 2004 p 101.
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Common questions
When did the Georgian era begin and who became king?
The Georgian era began on the 1st of August 1714 when Queen Anne died without surviving children. George Louis, Elector of Hanover arrived in London to become King George I.
Who was Britain's first de facto Prime Minister during the Georgian era?
Robert Walpole emerged as Britain's first de facto Prime Minister during the Georgian era. He seized initiative during a power vacuum created by King George I's limited English and disinterest in British affairs.
What major wars occurred between 1754 and 1815 in the Georgian era?
Major conflicts included the Seven Years' War from 1754 to 1763, the American Revolutionary War from 1775 to 1783, the French Revolutionary Wars from 1792 to 1802, and the Napoleonic Wars concluding in 1815. Victory over Napoleon came at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805 under Admiral Lord Nelson and the Battle of Waterloo in 1815 under the Duke of Wellington.
When was Catholic emancipation officially granted in the Georgian era?
Catholic emancipation became official on April 1829 when King George IV reluctantly agreed to the measure. The Roman Catholic Relief Act 1829 allowed Catholics to sit in both Houses of Parliament and hold all important nationwide offices with few exceptions.
Who were key figures in the Scottish Enlightenment movement?
Key thinkers in the Scottish Enlightenment included David Hume Adam Smith Adam Ferguson Francis Hutcheson Dugald Stewart Thomas Reid William Robertson Henry Home Lord Kames John Playfair Joseph Black James Hutton.