Battle of Waterloo

• 1. The Hundred Days Prelude

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  On the 13th of March 1815, six days before Napoleon I reached Paris, the powers at the Congress of Vienna declared him an outlaw. Four days later, the United Kingdom, Russia, Austria, and Prussia mobilised armies to defeat Napoleon. Napoleon returned to power in March 1815, beginning a period known as the Hundred Days. Many states that had previously opposed him formed the Seventh Coalition to oppose him again, and hurriedly mobilised their armies. Wellington's and Blücher's armies were cantoned close to the northeastern border of France. Napoleon planned to attack them separately, before they could link up and invade France with other members of the coalition. On the 16th of June, Napoleon successfully attacked the bulk of the Prussian Army at the Battle of Ligny with his main force. A small portion of the French Imperial Army contested the Battle of Quatre Bras to prevent the Anglo-allied army from reinforcing the Prussians. The Anglo-allied army held their ground at Quatre Bras but were prevented from reinforcing the Prussians. On the 17th, the Prussians withdrew from Ligny in good order, while Wellington then withdrew in parallel with the Prussians northward to Waterloo on the 17th of June. Napoleon sent a third of his forces to pursue the Prussians, which resulted in the separate Battle of Wavre with the Prussian rear-guard on 18, the 19th of June. This prevented that French force from participating at Waterloo.

• 2. Armies And Commanders

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  Napoleon's Armée du Nord consisted of around 74,500 men, including 54,014 infantry, 15,830 cavalry, and 8,775 artilleries with 254 guns. His troops were mainly veterans with considerable experience and a fierce devotion to their Emperor. The cavalry included fourteen regiments of armoured heavy cavalry and seven of highly versatile lancers. However, many units were commanded by officers the soldiers did not know or trust. The British-led force numbered 74,326 men: 53,607 infantry, 13,400 cavalry, and 5,596 artillery with 156 guns plus engineers and staff. Of these, 27,985 (38%) were British, with another 7,686 (10%) from the King's German Legion. There were also 21,035 Dutch-Belgian and Nassauer troops, 11,496 Hanoverian, and 6,124 Brunswick. All British Army troops were regular soldiers, and most had served in the Peninsula. Many of the Coalition armies were inexperienced. The Prussian army was in the throes of reorganisation, with Landwehr mostly untrained and unequipped when they arrived in Belgium. Blücher's army had excellent and professional leadership in its general staff. These officers came from four schools developed for this purpose and thus worked to a common standard of training.

• 3. Battlefield Topography

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  The battlefield is located in the Belgian municipalities of Braine-l'Alleud and Lasne, about south of Brussels, and from Waterloo. The site today is dominated by the monument of the Lion's Mound, an artificial hill constructed from earth taken from the battlefield. The Waterloo position chosen by Wellington was a strong one. It consisted of a long ridge running east, west, perpendicular to, and bisected by, the main road to Brussels. Along the crest of the ridge ran the Ohain road, a deep sunken lane. Near the crossroads with the Brussels road was a large elm tree that served as his command post for much of the day. Wellington deployed his infantry in a line just behind the crest of the ridge following the Ohain road. Using the reverse slope, he concealed his strength from the French. On the extreme right were the château, garden, and orchard of Hougoumont. This was a large and well-built country house, initially hidden in trees. On the extreme left was the hamlet of Papelotte. Both Hougoumont and Papelotte were fortified and garrisoned, anchoring Wellington's flanks securely. In front of the rest of Wellington's line was the farmhouse and orchard of La Haye Sainte, which was garrisoned with 400 light infantry of the King's German Legion.

• 4. The Opening Assaults

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  Wellington recorded in his dispatches that at about ten o'clock Napoleon commenced a furious attack upon our post at Hougoumont. The house and its immediate environs were defended by four light companies of Guards, and the wood and park by Hanoverian Jäger and the 1/2nd Nassau. The initial attack by Pierre François Bauduin's brigade emptied the wood and park but was driven back by heavy British artillery fire. A second attack by Soye's brigade succeeded in reaching the north gate of the house. Sous-Lieutenant Legros broke the gate open with an axe, and some French troops managed to enter the courtyard. The Coldstream Guards and the Scots Guards arrived to support the defence. There was a fierce melee, and the British managed to close the gate on the French troops streaming in. The Frenchmen trapped in the courtyard were all killed. Fighting continued around Hougoumont all afternoon. Its surroundings were heavily invested by French light infantry. Napoleon personally ordered the house to be shelled to set it on fire, resulting in the destruction of all but the chapel. The Grand Battery started its bombardment at 11:50 according to Lord Hill, while other sources put the time between noon and 13:30. The grande batterie drew up 80 guns in the centre.

• 5. Cavalry Charges And Countercharges

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  At this crucial juncture, Uxbridge ordered his two brigades of British heavy cavalry to charge in support of the hard-pressed infantry. The Household Brigade consisted of guards regiments including the 1st and 2nd Life Guards and the Royal Horse Guards. The Union Brigade included an English regiment, a Scottish regiment, and an Irish regiment. More than 20 years of warfare had eroded the numbers of suitable cavalry mounts available on the European continent. The British heavy cavalry entered the 1815 campaign with the finest horses of any contemporary cavalry arm. The Household Brigade crossed the crest of the Anglo-allied position and charged downhill. The cuirassiers guarding d'Erlon's left flank were swept over the deeply sunken main road and then routed. The Scots Greys came upon the lead French regiment, 45e Ligne, as it was still reforming after having crossed the sunken road. The Greys captured the eagle of the 45e Ligne and overwhelmed Grenier's brigade. These would be the only two French eagles captured by the British during the battle. Napoleon promptly responded by ordering a counter-attack by the cuirassier brigades of Farine and Travers and Jaquinot's two Chevau-léger lancer regiments. Disorganised and milling about the bottom of the valley, the Scots Greys and the rest of the British heavy cavalry were taken by surprise by the countercharge of Milhaud's cuirassiers.

• 6. The Fall Of La Haye Sainte

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  At approximately the same time as Ney's combined-arms assault on the centre-right of Wellington's line, rallied elements of D'Erlon's I Corps renewed the attack on La Haye Sainte. This time they were successful, partly because the King's German Legion's ammunition ran out. However, the Germans had held the center of the battlefield for almost the entire day, and this had stalled the French advance. With La Haye Sainte captured, Ney then moved skirmishers and horse artillery up towards Wellington's center. French artillery began to pulverise the infantry squares at short range with canister. The 30th and 73rd Regiments suffered such heavy losses that they had to combine to form a viable square. The situation for the Anglo-allies was now so dire that the 33rd Regiment's colours and all of Halkett's brigade's colors were sent to the rear for safety. Wellington, noticing the slackening of fire from La Haye Sainte, rode closer to it. French skirmishers appeared around the building and fired on the British command as it struggled to get away through the hedgerow along the road. The Prince of Orange ordered a single battalion of the KGL to recapture the farm despite the obvious presence of enemy cavalry.

• 7. Prussian Arrival And Victory

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  The Prussian IV Corps under Bülow was the first to arrive in strength. Bülow's objective was Plancenoit, which the Prussians intended to use as a springboard into the rear of the French positions. Blücher and Wellington had been exchanging communications since 10:00 and had agreed to this advance on Frichermont if Wellington's center was under attack. General Bülow noted that the way to Plancenoit lay open and that the time was 16:30. At about this time, the Prussian 15th Brigade was sent to link up with the Nassauers of Wellington's left flank. Napoleon sent Lobau's corps to stop the rest of Bülow's IV Corps proceeding to Plancenoit. The 15th Brigade threw Lobau's troops out of Frichermont with a determined bayonet charge. Hiller's 16th Brigade also pushed forward with six battalions against Plancenoit. Napoleon had dispatched all eight battalions of the Young Guard to reinforce Lobau. Zieten's I Corps arrived in greater strength in the area just north of La Haie. General Müffling rode to meet Zieten. Zieten had by this time brought up the Prussian 1st Brigade but had become concerned at the sight of stragglers and casualties from the Nassau units. Müffling saw this movement away and persuaded Zieten to support Wellington's left flank.

• 8. Legacy And Historical Impact

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  The Battle of Waterloo was fought on Sunday the 18th of June 1815, near Waterloo, marking the end of the Napoleonic Wars. It was the second bloodiest single day battle of the Napoleonic Wars, after Borodino. According to Wellington, the battle was 'the nearest-run thing you ever saw in your life'. Napoleon abdicated four days later, and coalition forces entered Paris on the 7th of July. The defeat at Waterloo marked the end of Napoleon's Hundred Days return from exile. It precipitated Napoleon's second and definitive abdication as Emperor of the French, and ended the First French Empire. It set a historical milestone between serial European wars and decades of relative peace, often referred to as the Pax Britannica. In popular culture, the phrase 'meeting one's Waterloo' has become an expression for experiencing a catastrophic reversal or undoing. The battle was known contemporaneously as the Battle of Mont Saint-Jean in France and La Belle Alliance in Prussia.