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American Revolutionary War | HearLore
— Ch. 1 · Origins And Escalation —
American Revolutionary War.
~15 min read · Ch. 1 of 7
On the 19th of April 1775, British troops marched toward Concord to seize colonial militia ordnance and capture John Hancock. Paul Revere warned Captain Parker of the plan before midnight struck. The first shot rang out at Lexington, followed by a full-scale battle where British forces suffered around 300 casualties. This skirmish marked the beginning of open armed conflict between Great Britain and its Thirteen Colonies. Tensions had been building since 1763 when the Seven Years' War ended with France expelled from North America. The Royal Proclamation of 1763 restricted settlement west of the Appalachian Mountains to prevent further conflict with Native Americans. Many colonists resented these restrictions and refused to pay for frontier garrisons required to enforce them. Parliament responded with taxation measures including the Sugar Act and Stamp Act in 1765. These taxes proved highly burdensome especially for poorer classes and quickly became sources of widespread discontent. In July 1765 the Whigs repealed the Stamp Act but reasserted Parliamentary authority through the Declaratory Act. A riot started in Boston in 1768 when authorities seized the sloop Liberty on suspicion of smuggling. Tensions escalated further in March 1770 when British troops fired on rock-throwing civilians killing five people in what became known as the Boston Massacre. The partial repeal of the Townshend Acts coincided with this event yet Parliament retained duty on tea to enshrine its right to tax colonies. In April 1772 colonialists staged the first American tax revolt against British royal authority in Weare New Hampshire later called the Pine Tree Riot. Destruction of a customs vessel in June 1772 during the Gaspee Affair brought tensions to a head by 1773. A banking crisis led to near-collapse of the East India Company which dominated the British economy. To support it Parliament passed the Tea Act giving it a trading monopoly in the Thirteen Colonies. Most American tea was smuggled by Dutch merchants so the act opposed those managing illegal trade while being seen as another attempt to impose taxation principles. In December 1773 a group called the Sons of Liberty disguised as Mohawks dumped crates of tea into Boston Harbor an event later known as the Boston Tea Party. The British Parliament responded by passing the Intolerable Acts aimed specifically at Massachusetts though many colonists considered them threats to liberty in general.
Declaration And Early Battles
On the 4th of July 1776, the Second Continental Congress unanimously adopted the Declaration of Independence after voting for independence two days earlier. Thomas Jefferson wrote almost exclusively the document identifying inhabitants of the Thirteen Colonies as one people and dissolving political links with Britain. Estimates suggest the population split evenly between committed Patriots, committed Loyalists, and those who were indifferent or neutral. On the 19th of April 1775 Sir Thomas Gage received orders to take action against Patriots planning to destroy militia ordnance stored at Concord. Paul Revere learned of the plan and notified Captain Parker who prepared resistance. The first battle occurred at Lexington followed by full-scale fighting where British troops suffered around 300 casualties before withdrawing to Boston. In May 1775, 4,500 British reinforcements arrived under Generals William Howe John Burgoyne and Sir Henry Clinton. On June 17 they seized the Charlestown Peninsula at the Battle of Bunker Hill suffering over 1,000 casualties in a costly frontal assault. Dismayed at the attack which gained little ground Gage appealed to London for a larger army but was replaced as commander by Howe. On the 14th of June 1775 Congress took control of Patriot forces outside Boston and nominated Washington as commander-in-chief of the newly formed Continental Army. Hancock officially proclaimed him General and Commander in Chief of the army of the United Colonies on June 16. He assumed command on July 3 preferring to fortify Dorchester Heights rather than assault Boston directly. In early March 1776 Colonel Henry Knox arrived with heavy artillery acquired from Fort Ticonderoga. Under cover of darkness on March 5 Washington placed these cannons on Dorchester Heights firing on town and ships in Boston Harbor. Fearing another Bunker Hill Howe evacuated the city on March 17 without further loss sailing to Halifax Nova Scotia while Washington moved south to New York City. Beginning in August 1775 American privateers raided towns in Nova Scotia including Saint John Charlottetown and Yarmouth. In 1776 John Paul Jones and Jonathan Eddy attacked Canso and Fort Cumberland respectively. British officials in Quebec began negotiating with Iroquois for support while US envoys urged neutrality. Aware of Native American leanings toward Britain and fearing an Anglo-Indian attack from Canada Congress authorized a second invasion in April 1775. After defeat at the Battle of Quebec on December 31 Americans maintained a loose blockade until retreating the 6th of May 1776. A second defeat at Trois-Rivières on June 8 ended operations in Quebec. British pursuit was initially blocked by American naval vessels on Lake Champlain until victory at Valcour Island on October 11 forced withdrawal to Fort Ticonderoga.
Turning Point At Saratoga
In September 1777 Burgoyne set out from Montreal leading a mixed force of British regulars professional German soldiers and Canadian militia. He captured Fort Ticonderoga on July 5 but General Horatio Gates retreated blocking roads destroying bridges damming streams stripping food from the area. This slowed progress forcing large foraging expeditions one of more than 700 British troops captured at Bennington on August 16. St Leger moved east besieging Fort Stanwix defeating an American relief force at Oriskany on August 6 before being abandoned by Indian allies withdrawing to Quebec on August 22. Now isolated and outnumbered by Gates Burgoyne continued onto Albany reaching Saratoga on September 13 asking Clinton for support while constructing defenses around town. Morale among his troops rapidly declined after an unsuccessful attempt to break past Gates at Freeman Farms on September 19 resulted in 600 British casualties. When Clinton advised he could not reach them Burgoyne's subordinates advised retreat; reconnaissance in force on October 7 was repulsed by Gates at Bemis Heights forcing them back into Saratoga with heavy losses. By October 11 all hope of escape vanished as persistent rain reduced camp to squalid hell leaving supplies dangerously low. Burgoyne capitulated on October 17; around 6,222 soldiers including German forces commanded by Friedrich Adolf Riedesel surrendered arms before transport to Boston. After securing additional supplies Howe made another attempt on Philadelphia landing troops in Chesapeake Bay on August 24. He compounded failure to support Burgoyne by missing repeated opportunities to destroy opponent despite defeating Washington at Brandywine on September 11 allowing withdrawal in good order. Dispersing American detachment at Paoli on September 20 Cornwallis occupied Philadelphia on September 26 with main force of 9,000 under Howe based north at Germantown. Washington attacked them on October 4 but was repulsed. To prevent resupply by sea Patriots erected Fort Mifflin and nearby Fort Mercer placing obstacles in river south of city supported by Continental Navy ships supplemented by Pennsylvania State Navy commanded by John Hazelwood. An attempt by Royal Navy to take forts in Battle of Red Bank failed October 20 to 22 while second attack captured Fort Mifflin November 16 abandoning Fort Mercer two days later when Cornwallis breached walls. His supply lines secured Howe tried tempting Washington into giving battle after inconclusive skirmishing at White Marsh from December 5 to 8 withdrawing to Philadelphia for winter. On December 19 Americans followed suit entering winter quarters at Valley Forge where over 2,000 deaths occurred due to poor conditions alongside 3,000 unfit for duty lacking shoes. Baron Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben introduced Prussian Army drill and infantry tactics to model companies instructing home units during this period.
Southern Theater Strategy
The Southern Strategy developed by Lord Germain relied heavily on input from London-based Loyalists including Joseph Galloway arguing fighting Patriots in north made no sense while New England economy depended on trade with Britain. Duties on tobacco made South far more profitable requiring small numbers of regular troops if local support existed. Victory would leave truncated United States facing British possessions south north and west forcing Congress agreement terms. Assumptions about level of Loyalist support proved wildly optimistic however. Germain ordered Augustine Prévost advancing into Georgia December 1778; Lieutenant-Colonel Archibald Campbell captured Savannah December 29 recruiting nearly 1,100 Loyalist militia allegedly joining only after property confiscation threats. Poor motivation and training made them unreliable demonstrated defeat by Patriot militia at Kettle Creek the 14th of February 1779 offsetting victory at Brier Creek March 3. In June 1779 Prévost launched abortive assault on Charleston retreating to Savannah operation notorious for widespread looting enraging both sides. Joint French American operation under d'Estaing and Benjamin Lincoln failed recapturing Savannah October. Prévost replaced by Lord Cornwallis assuming responsibility realizing estimates over-stated needing far more regular forces. Reinforced by Clinton Cornwallis's troops captured Charleston May 1780 inflicting most serious Patriot defeat taking over 5,000 prisoners destroying Continental Army in south effectively. On May 29 Banastre Tarleton's mainly Loyalist force routed Continental Army nearly three times size under Abraham Buford at Waxhaws battle controversial for alleged massacre later used as recruiting tool. Clinton returned New York leaving Cornwallis overseeing south despite success two men left barely speaking terms. Southern strategy depended local support undermined series coercive measures previously captured Patriots sent home swearing not take arms now required fighting former comrades while confiscation plantations led neutral grandees siding with them. Skirmishes Williamson's Plantation Cedar Springs Rocky Mount Hanging Rock signaled widespread resistance new oaths throughout South Carolina. July 1780 Congress appointed Gates commander south defeated Camden August 16 leaving Cornwallis free entering North Carolina. Despite battlefield successes British could not control countryside Patriot attacks continued before moving north sending Patrick Ferguson covering left flank leaving forces too distant mutual support. Early October Ferguson defeated Kings Mountain dispersing organized Loyalist region. Cornwallis continued into North Carolina hoping support Washington replacing Gates Nathanael Greene December 1780. Greene divided army leading main force southeast pursued Cornwallis; detachment sent southwest Daniel Morgan defeating Tarleton's British Legion Cowpens the 17th of January 1781 nearly eliminating fighting force. Patriots held initiative exception raid Richmond Benedict Arnold January 1781. Greene led Cornwallis countermarches around North Carolina early March exhausted short supplies strong enough fight Guilford Court House March 15. Victorious Cornwallis suffered heavy casualties retreating Wilmington seeking reinforcements. Patriots controlled most Carolinas Georgia outside coastal areas minor reversal Hobkirk's Hill recapturing Fort Watson Motte April 15. June 6 Andrew Pickens captured Augusta confining British Georgia Charleston Savannah. Assumption Loyalists doing most fighting left British short troops battlefield victories cost losses unreplaced. Halting Greene advance Eutaw Springs September 8 Cornwallis withdrew Charleston little showing campaign.
Global Conflict And Diplomacy
French foreign minister Vergennes considered 1763 Peace national humiliation viewing war opportunity weaken Britain initially avoiding open conflict allowing American ships cargoes French ports technical violation neutrality. He persuaded Louis XVI secretly fund government front company purchasing munitions Patriots carried neutral Dutch ships imported Sint Eustatius Caribbean. Many Americans opposed French alliance fearing exchange one tyranny another changing after series military setbacks early 1776. Congress had three choices making peace British terms continuing struggle own proclaiming independence guaranteed France. Declaration Independence wide public support over 20% Congressmen voted against alliance France. Congress agreed treaty reluctance losing interest increasingly war moved favor Silas Deane sent Paris begin negotiations Vergennes key objectives replacing Britain primary commercial military partner securing French West Indies from American expansion. Islands extremely valuable; 1772 sugar coffee produced Saint-Domingue alone exceeded all American exports combined. Talks progressed slowly until October 1777 when British defeat Saratoga apparent willingness negotiate convinced Vergennes permanent alliance prevent disaster Anglo-American rapprochement. Assurances formal French support allowed Congress reject Carlisle Peace Commission insisting nothing short complete independence. the 6th of February 1778 France United States signed Treaty Amity Commerce regulating trade followed defensive military alliance Treaty Alliance. Return French guarantees American independence Congress undertook defend interests West Indies sides agreed not make separate peace conflict provisions lead 1798 to 1800 Quasi-War. Charles III Spain invited join same terms refusing largely concerns impact Revolution Spanish colonies Americas complaining multiple occasions encroachment American settlers Louisiana problem worsen once United States replaced Britain. Spain ultimately made important contributions American success Treaty Aranjuez Charles agreed support France's war Britain outside America return help recovering Gibraltar Menorca Spanish Florida. Terms confidential conflicting several American aims example French claimed exclusive control Newfoundland cod fisheries non-negotiable colonies like Massachusetts. One less well-known impact abiding American distrust foreign entanglements US sign another treaty France until NATO agreement 1949 because US agreed not make peace without France while Aranjuez committed France keep fighting until Spain recovered Gibraltar effectively making condition US independence knowledge Congress. Encourage French participation struggle US representative Paris Silas Deane promised promotion command positions any French officer joining Continental Army including Gilbert du Motier Marquis Lafayette appointed major general the 31st of July 1777. When war started Britain tried borrow Dutch-based Scots Brigade service America pro-Patriot sentiment led States General refuse. Republic no longer major power prior 1774 still dominated European carrying trade Dutch merchants made large profits shipping French-supplied munitions Patriots ending December 1780 British declared war proving disastrous Dutch economy. British government failed take account strength American merchant marine support European countries allowing colonies import munitions continue trading relative impunity. Well aware North administration delayed placing Royal Navy war footing cost reasons preventing institution effective blockade. Traditional British policy employ European land-based allies divert opposition; 1778 diplomatically isolated faced war multiple fronts. George III gave subduing America Britain European war fight did not welcome war France held victories Seven Years' War reason believe ultimate victory over France. Subsequently changed focus Caribbean theater diverting major military resources away America.
Western Frontier Warfare
From beginning war Bernardo de Gálvez Governor Spanish Louisiana allowed Americans import supplies munitions New Orleans then ship Pittsburgh providing alternative transportation route Continental Army bypassing British Atlantic Coast blockade. February 1778 expedition militia destroy British military supplies settlements Cuyahoga River halted adverse weather. Later year second campaign undertaken seize Illinois Country from British Virginia militia Canadien settlers Indian allies commanded Colonel George Rogers Clark captured Kaskaskia July 4 securing Vincennes though recaptured Quebec Governor Henry Hamilton. Spanish-aligned fur trader Francis Vigo alerted Clark threat posed control west Hamilton position early 1779 Virginians counter-attacked siege Fort Vincennes taking Hamilton prisoner. Clark secured western British Quebec as American Northwest Territory Treaty Paris Revolutionary War ended. When Spain joined France's war Anglo-French War 1779 treaty specifically excluded Spanish military action North America later that year Galvez initiated offensive operations against British outposts. Cleared garrisons Baton Rouge Louisiana Fort Bute Natchez Mississippi capturing five forts opening navigation Mississippi River north American settlement Pittsburgh. the 25th of May 1780 British Colonel Henry Bird invaded Kentucky part wider operation clear American resistance Quebec Gulf Coast advance New Orleans repelled Spanish Governor Galvez offensive Mobile. Simultaneous British attacks repulsed St Louis by Lieutenant Governor de Leyba Virginia County courthouse Cahokia Illinois Lieutenant Colonel Clark. British initiative under Bird Detroit ended rumored approach Clark scale violence Licking River Valley extreme even frontier standards leading English German settlements joining Clark's militia when British hired German soldiers withdrew Great Lakes. Americans responded major offensive Mad River August meeting some success Battle Piqua not ending Indian raids. French soldier Augustin de La Balme led Canadian militia attempt capture Detroit dispersing Miami natives Little Turtle attacked encamped settlers November 5. War west stalemated British garrison sitting Detroit Virginians expanding westward settlements north Ohio River face British-allied Indian resistance. 1781 Galvez Pollock campaigned east along Gulf Coast securing West Florida including British-held Mobile Pensacola. Spanish operations impaired British supply armaments British Indian allies effectively suspending military alliance attack settlers between Mississippi River Appalachian Mountains. 1782 large scale retaliations settlers Native Americans region included Gnadenhutten massacre Crawford expedition. 1782 Battle Blue Licks one last major engagements war news treaty Great Britain United States arrived late year. By time about 7% Kentucky settlers killed battles Native Americans contrasted 1% population killed Thirteen Colonies. Lingering resentments led continued fighting west after war officially ended.
Final Victory And Peace
Clinton spent most 1781 based New York City failing construct coherent operational strategy partly difficult relationship Admiral Marriot Arbuthnot. Charleston Cornwallis independently developed aggressive plan campaign Virginia hoping isolate Greene's army Carolinas cause collapse Patriot resistance South approved Lord Germain London neither informed Clinton. Washington Rochambeau discussed options Washington wanted attack British New York Rochambeau wanted attack them Virginia where Cornwallis forces less established. Eventually gave way Lafayette took combined Franco-American force into Virginia. Clinton misinterpreted movements preparations attack New York instructing Cornwallis establish fortified sea base Royal Navy could evacuate British troops help defend New York. When Lafayette entered Virginia Cornwallis complied orders withdrawing Yorktown constructing strong defenses awaiting evacuation. Agreement Spanish Navy defend French West Indies allowed François Joseph Paul de Grasse relocate Atlantic seaboard move Arbuthnot did not anticipate providing Lafayette naval support failure previous combined operations Newport Savannah meant coordination planned carefully. Repeated urging subordinates Cornwallis made attempt engage Lafayette before establishing siege lines abandoning outer defenses promptly occupied besiegers hastening defeat. August 31 Royal Navy fleet Thomas Graves left New York Yorktown landing troops munitions besiegers August 30 de Grasse remained Chesapeake Bay intercepting September 5; Battle Chesapeake indecisive terms losses Graves forced retreat leaving Cornwallis isolated. Attempted breakout over York River Gloucester Point failed bad weather. Under heavy bombardment dwindling supplies October 16 Cornwallis sent emissaries General Washington negotiate surrender twelve hours negotiations finalized following day. Responsibility defeat subject fierce public debate between Cornwallis Clinton Germain ultimately taking blame spending rest life relative obscurity. Subsequent Yorktown American forces assigned supervise armistice Washington Clinton facilitate British departure following January 1782 law Parliament forbidding further British offensive action North America. British-American negotiations Paris led signed preliminary agreements November 1782 acknowledging US independence enacted Congressional war objective British withdrawal North America cession regions completed stages East Coast cities. US South Generals Greene Wayne observed British removing troops Charleston the 14th of December 1782. Loyalist provincial militias whites free Blacks transported Nova Scotia British West Indies Native American allies freed Blacks left escape unaided through American lines. the 9th of April 1783 Washington issued orders all acts hostility cease immediately same day arrangement Carleton issued similar order British troops. Directed Congressional resolution the 26th of May 1783 non-commissioned officers enlisted furloughed homes until definitive treaty peace automatically discharged. US armies directly disbanded field Washington's General Orders the 2nd of June 1783. Once Treaty Paris signed Britain the 3rd of September 1783 Washington resigned commander-in-chief Continental Army last British occupation New York City ended the 25th of November 1783 departure Clinton replacement Sir Guy Carleton.
When did the American Revolutionary War begin and what triggered it?
The American Revolutionary War began on the 19th of April 1775 when British troops marched toward Concord to seize colonial militia ordnance. This event marked the beginning of open armed conflict between Great Britain and its Thirteen Colonies following tensions that had been building since 1763.
Who wrote the Declaration of Independence adopted by the Second Continental Congress in 1776?
Thomas Jefferson wrote almost exclusively the document identifying inhabitants of the Thirteen Colonies as one people and dissolving political links with Britain. The Second Continental Congress unanimously adopted this declaration on the 4th of July 1776 after voting for independence two days earlier.
What happened during the Battle of Saratoga in October 1777?
British General John Burgoyne capitulated on the 17th of October 1777 after his forces were surrounded at Saratoga. Around 6,222 soldiers including German forces commanded by Friedrich Adolf Riedesel surrendered arms before transport to Boston.
How did French involvement change the course of the American Revolutionary War?
France signed the Treaty Amity Commerce and defensive military alliance with the United States on the 6th of February 1778 after the British defeat at Saratoga. This alliance provided crucial naval support and allowed American ships to carry cargoes through French ports while securing French West Indies from American expansion.
When and where did the final surrender of the American Revolutionary War occur?
The final surrender occurred at Yorktown when British General Charles Cornwallis negotiated with General George Washington following heavy bombardment starting on the 16th of October 1781. The war officially ended with the signing of the Treaty Paris on the 3rd of September 1783 which acknowledged US independence.