War of the Fourth Coalition
On the 9th of October 1806, Prussia declared war on France and joined a renewed coalition. This decision followed months of diplomatic breakdown and the formation of the Confederation of the Rhine in July 1806. Napoleon had promised Hanover to Prussia but secretly planned to return it to Britain during peace negotiations. The French army occupied Hanover since 1803, creating a dispute that became a casus belli for both Britain and Prussia against France. Swedish forces had been deployed there as part of the effort to liberate Hanover during the previous coalition war. French troops ejected the Swedish forces in April 1806, dragging Sweden into the conflict. Prussia remained at peace with France until March 1806 when Marshal Joachim Murat ejected a Prussian garrison from his newly acquired realm. Relations soured further after Napoleon formed the Confederation of the Rhine out of various German states. A virtual satellite of the French Empire, this Confederation acted as a buffer state from future aggressions. Prussia viewed this increasing French meddling as a threat without its involvement or consultation. The summary arrest and execution of Johann Philipp Palm in August 1806 for publishing an anti-Napoleon pamphlet added fuel to the fire. After giving Napoleon an ultimatum on the 1st of October 1806, Prussia finally decided to contend militarily with the Emperor.
Napoleon smashed a Prussian army led by Frederick Louis, Prince of Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen at Jena on the 14th of October 1806. Simultaneously, Marshal Louis-Nicolas Davout routed Charles William Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick's main army at Auerstedt that same day. At Auerstedt, a single French corps defeated the bulk of the Prussian army despite being heavily outnumbered. Victory was secured once both the Duke of Brunswick and Friedrich Wilhelm Carl von Schmettau were mortally wounded. Prussian command devolved to King Fredrick William, who believed he was facing Napoleon himself. Matters worsened when remnants of the Prussian army from Jena stumbled onto the clash at Auerstedt. This triggered their precipitous retreat and plunged morale further. Some 160,000 French soldiers fought against Prussia, destroying almost the entire quarter of a million-strong Prussian army as an effective military force. The Prussians sustained 65,000 casualties including two deaths among the royal family. They lost over 150,000 prisoners, more than 4,000 artillery pieces, and over 100,000 muskets stockpiled in Berlin. Napoleon entered Berlin on the 27th of October 1806 and visited the tomb of Frederick the Great. He told his marshals to show respect, saying if the great king were alive they would not be there today. In total, Napoleon took only 19 days from invasion commencement until knocking Prussia out of the war.
French forces advanced all the way to East Prussia, Poland and the Russian frontier by early 1807. An inconclusive battle against the Russians occurred at the Battle of Eylau on 7, the 8th of February 1807. Napoleon's advance was briefly checked during spring as he revitalized his army with fresh supplies. Russian forces were finally crushed by the French at the Battle of Friedland on the 14th of June 1807. Three days later Russia asked for a truce. Alexander sued for peace with Napoleon at Tilsit on the 7th of July 1807 following this defeat. Earlier attempts to entrap Bennigsen's Russian 1st Army at Pultusk and near Heilsberg had been thwarted. A tactical and bloody draw at Eylau forced the Russians to withdraw further north. After spending much of the spring recuperating his forces, Napoleon routed the Russian army decisively. The area of the Duchy of Warsaw had already been liberated by a popular uprising that escalated from anti-conscription rioting. Napoleon created this new duchy to be ruled by his ally Frederick Augustus I of Saxony. Meanwhile, Swedish involvement focused primarily on protecting Swedish Pomerania despite being defeated at Lübeck.
Through the Treaties of Tilsit in July 1807, France made peace with Russia which agreed to join the Continental System. The treaty was particularly harsh on Prussia as Napoleon demanded much territory along the lower Rhine west of the Elbe. These acquisitions were incorporated into the new Kingdom of Westphalia led by Jérôme Bonaparte. Other territories became part of the new Duchy of Warsaw, a Polish client state ruled by the king of Saxony. At the end of the war there was peace on Continental Europe with Napoleon as master of almost all western and central continental Europe. Exceptions included Spain, Portugal, Austria and several other smaller states. Britain remained at war with France despite the conclusion of the Fourth Coalition. War returned to Continental Europe later in 1807 when Napoleon decided to invade Portugal. A joint Franco-Spanish force invaded Britain's ally Portugal beginning the Peninsular War where Napoleon would also invade Spain. A further Fifth Coalition assembled when Austria re-joined the conflict in 1809. On the 21st of November 1806, Napoleon issued the Berlin Decree to bring into effect the Continental System.
Napoleon looked to break British sea dominance after his defeat of Prussia through issuance of the Berlin Decree. This policy aimed to control trade of all European countries without consulting their governments. The ostensible goal was weakening the British economy by closing French-controlled territory to its trade. British merchants smuggled many goods making the Continental System prove ineffective as a weapon of economic war. Britain retaliated with its Orders in Council several months later. Despite the end of the Fourth Coalition, Britain remained at war with France. Russia soon declared war against Britain following the treaties. After a British attack on Copenhagen, Denmark-Norway joined the war on Napoleon's side opening a second front against Sweden. At the Congress of Erfurt from September to October 1808, Napoleon and Alexander agreed that Russia should force Sweden to join the Continental System. This led to the Finnish War of 1808, 1809 meaning Sweden played no role in the next coalition against Napoleon. The eastern part of Sweden became the Russian Grand Duchy of Finland separated by the Gulf of Bothnia. Due to the Continental System, Britain was yet again still at war with Napoleon and not affected by the peace treaty.
Despite being defeated at Lübeck, Swedish forces successfully defended the fort of Stralsund pushing French troops out of Swedish Pomerania in early April 1807. On the 18th of April, France and Sweden agreed to a ceasefire. However, Swedish refusal to join the Continental System led to a second invasion of Swedish Pomerania led by Marshal Brune. Stralsund fell on the 24th of August after a siege and the Swedish army abandoned Rügen leaving France in control over Swedish Pomerania. An armistice allowed the Swedish army to withdraw with all its munitions of war. In negotiations with captured Swedes after the Battle of Lübeck, Marshal Bernadotte first came to attention of Swedish authorities. This set in motion events leading to him being elected heir to the Swedish throne as King Charles XIV John of Sweden. After the Treaty of Tilsit, the Empire seemed at its zenith flush with triumph. Napoleon decided to capture Iberian ports of Britain's long-time ally Portugal to close off another strip of European coast. Spain's Prime Minister Manuel de Godoy signed the Treaty of Fontainebleau on the 27th of October 1807 with France. In return for alliance and passage of French armies through its realm, Spain would receive Portuguese territory. Napoleon soon embroiled himself and France in Spain's internal power struggles within its royal family.
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Common questions
When did Prussia declare war on France in the War of the Fourth Coalition?
Prussia declared war on France on the 9th of October 1806. This decision followed months of diplomatic breakdown and the formation of the Confederation of the Rhine in July 1806.
What were the key battles fought during the War of the Fourth Coalition between Napoleon and Russia?
French forces defeated Russian armies at the Battle of Eylau on the 7th, the 8th of February 1807 and the Battle of Friedland on the 14th of June 1807. These victories led to Russia asking for a truce three days later.
Who signed the Treaty of Tilsit that ended the War of the Fourth Coalition?
Napoleon sued for peace with Alexander I of Russia at Tilsit on the 7th of July 1807 following the defeat at Friedland. The treaty established peace between France and Russia while imposing harsh terms on Prussia.
Why did Sweden enter the War of the Fourth Coalition against France?
Swedish forces had been deployed to liberate Hanover but French troops ejected them in April 1806. This action dragged Sweden into the conflict as they sought to protect Swedish Pomerania from further aggression.
When was the Berlin Decree issued by Napoleon to enforce the Continental System?
Napoleon issued the Berlin Decree on the 21st of November 1806 to bring the Continental System into effect. This policy aimed to control trade of all European countries without consulting their governments to weaken the British economy.