Song dynasty
In 960, Emperor Taizu of Song seized the throne from the Later Zhou dynasty and began a sixteen-year campaign to reunify China. He conquered the remaining Ten Kingdoms, ending decades of fragmentation known as the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. The new capital was established in Kaifeng, a northern city that became the heart of a strong central government. To ensure administrative stability, Taizu promoted the civil service examination system, selecting bureaucrats by skill rather than aristocratic birth. Cartographers created detailed maps of every province and city, which were collected into a massive atlas for imperial use. This era also saw support for groundbreaking scientific works, including an astronomical clock tower designed by the engineer Zhang Sixun. Diplomatic relations expanded to include Chola India, the Fatimid Caliphate of Egypt, Srivijaya, and the Kara-Khanid Khanate. An embassy from Michael VII Doukas of the Byzantine Empire arrived in 1081, marking early global connections.
Political rivalries divided the court during the 11th century as ministers debated how to manage a complex society and thriving economy. Fan Zhongyan, an idealist Chancellor, faced heated backlash when he attempted the Qingli Reforms to improve official recruitment and education. After his removal, Wang Anshi became Chancellor with Emperor Shenzong's backing and implemented the New Policies. These reforms included land value tax changes, government monopolies, and higher standards for the Imperial examination. The New Policies Group, or Reformers, clashed with the Conservative faction led by historian Sima Guang. As one faction gained power, they demoted rivals and exiled them to remote frontier regions. Su Shi, a famous poet and statesman, was jailed and eventually exiled for criticizing Wang's reforms. Cai Jing, appointed by Emperor Zhezong, revived the New Policies and pursued political opponents while tolerating corruption. A peasant rebellion led by Fang La broke out in Zhejiang and Fujian in 1120, caused by heavy taxes and oppressive measures. While the central court remained divided, the Jurchen people rebelled against their Liao overlords and formed the Jin dynasty. The Song alliance with the Jurchens toppled the Liao state by 1125 but left the northern border defenseless.
In 1127, the Jin army captured Kaifeng during the Jingkang Incident, taking Emperor Huizong, his successor Emperor Qinzong, and most of the imperial court. The remaining Song forces regrouped under self-proclaimed Emperor Gaozong and withdrew south of the Yangtze River. They established a new capital at Lin'an, now modern Hangzhou, marking the start of the Southern Song period. Despite losing North China, the Southern Song maintained a robust economy through massive shipbuilding and harbor improvement projects. The government constructed beacons and seaport warehouses to support maritime trade at major international ports like Quanzhou, Guangzhou, and Xiamen. An official standing navy was established in 1132 with headquarters at Dinghai to protect ships sailing into the East China Sea and Yellow Sea. During the Battle of Tangdao and the Battle of Caishi in 1161, the Song navy used paddle wheel-driven vessels armed with gunpowder bombs to defeat larger Jin fleets. A century after its founding, the navy had grown to include 52,000 fighting marines. The government confiscated land from the landed gentry to fund these projects, causing dissension but not stopping defensive preparations.
The Wujing Zongyao manuscript of 1044 provided the first known formulas for gunpowder and their use in different types of bombs. In 1259, the city of Qingzhou manufactured one to two thousand iron-cased bombshells monthly during the war with the Mongols. Shen Kuo, a polymath scientist, discerned magnetic declination while experimenting with a compass and improved designs of astronomical instruments. Su Song built a hydraulic-powered astronomical clock tower in Kaifeng featuring 133 clock jack manneins that rang gongs and presented announcement plaques. The odometer vehicle combined with the south-pointing chariot allowed accurate measurement of distance traveled across the empire. Shen Kuo also performed optical experiments with camera obscura decades after Ibn al-Haytham's work. The invention of movable type printing by Bi Sheng between 990 and 1051 enhanced the widespread use of woodblock methods. This innovation deeply affected education since more books could be made faster and were cheaper than handwritten copies. The pound lock system, invented in 984 by engineer Qiao Weiyo, allowed different water levels to be raised and lowered for canal segments. Watertight bulkhead compartments enabled ships to survive hull damage without sinking, while drydocks repaired vessels suspended out of water.
Song China invested funds in joint stock companies and multiple sailing vessels while monetary gain was assured from vigorous overseas trade. Private merchant families occupied industries not already government-operated monopolies, creating a stable economy. Iron production exceeded one million tons per year, much reserved for military weapons but some used for domestic market demands. In 1085, annual minted copper currency reached roughly six billion coins. The world's first government-issued paper money, known as Jiaozi or Huizi, was established through several government-run factories. By 1175, the factory at Hangzhou employed over a thousand workers daily. The urban population of Hanghou grew from 200,000 at the start of the 12th century to over a million a century later. In 1120 alone, the Song government collected 18,000,000 ounces of silver in taxes. Moroccan geographer al-Idrisi wrote in 1154 about Chinese merchant ships bringing iron, swords, silk, velvet, porcelain, and textiles to Aden, the Indus River, and the Euphrates. West and Central Asian Muslims became preeminent forces in import and export industries, with some appointed as officers supervising economic affairs.
Neo-Confucianism was led by Cheng Yi and Zhu Xi, whose commentary on the Four Books became standard requirements for civil service examinations by 1241. Mahayana Buddhism influenced Fan Zhongyan and Wang Anshi through ethical universalism concepts while Buddhist metaphysics affected pre-Neo-Confucian doctrine. Ouyang Xiu called Buddhism a curse that needed uprooting to replace it with Confucian discourse. The Chan sect experienced literary flourishing with major classical koan collections influencing Zen philosophy today. Emperor Huizong, an eighth emperor and renowned artist, maintained a catalogue listing over 6,000 known paintings. Zhang Zeduan painted the enormous panoramic work Along the River During the Qingming Festival depicting city life. Su Shi wrote daytrip essays like Record of Stone Bell Mountain using persuasive writing to argue philosophical points. Fan Chengda and Su Shi popularized Chinese travel literature during this period. The matured form of fangzhi replaced old map guides as illustrated gazetteers served political and military purposes. Li Jie published Yingzao Fashi in 1103 detailing architectural methods used by central government agencies and craftsmen throughout the empire.
Genghis Khan invaded the Jin dynasty in 1205 and 1209 before assembling an enormous army in 1211 to invade further. Ögedei Khan conquered both the Jin and Western Xia dynasties in 1233 or 1234 while the Song alliance was broken when they recaptured former imperial capitals. Möngke Khan died on the 11th of August 1259 during the siege of Diaoyu Castle in Chongqing. His successor Kublai Khan continued the assault against the Song, gaining a temporary foothold on southern banks of the Yangtze. Kublai blockaded the Yangtze River from 1268 to 1273 and besieged Xiangyang, the last obstacle to invading the rich Yangtze basin. In 1275, a Song force of 130,000 troops under Chancellor Jia Sidao was defeated by general Bayan. By 1276, most Song territory including capital Lin'an had been captured by Yuan forces. The Battle of Yamen on the Pearl River Delta in 1279 saw Yuan general Zhang Hongfan crush remaining Song resistance. The seven-year-old emperor Zhao Bing committed suicide along with Prime Minister Lu Xiufu and approximately 1,300 royal clan members. Kublai Khan ordered the rest of the imperial family unharmed but eventually forced Emperor Gong to commit suicide out of fear of coups.
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Common questions
When did the Song dynasty begin and end?
The Song dynasty began in 960 when Emperor Taizu seized the throne from the Later Zhou dynasty. The dynasty ended in 1279 after the Battle of Yamen on the Pearl River Delta where Yuan general Zhang Hongfan crushed remaining resistance.
Who founded the Song dynasty and what was their capital city?
Emperor Taizu founded the Song dynasty in 960 by seizing power from the Later Zhou dynasty. He established the new capital in Kaifeng, a northern city that became the heart of a strong central government before the court moved to Lin'an during the Southern Song period.
What major technological innovations occurred during the Song dynasty?
Song China produced the first known formulas for gunpowder in the Wujing Zongyao manuscript of 1044. Engineers invented movable type printing between 990 and 1051, developed the pound lock system in 984, and created paddle wheel-driven vessels armed with gunpowder bombs for naval warfare.
How did the civil service examination system function under the Song dynasty?
The civil service system became virtually the only means for drafting officials into the government by the Song period. Exam takers rose from 30,000 annually in the early 11th century to 400,000 candidates by the late 13th century, replacing elite social groups with a multitude of gentry families.
When did the Jin army capture the Song capital of Kaifeng?
The Jin army captured Kaifeng in 1127 during the Jingkang Incident. This event took Emperor Huizong, his successor Emperor Qinzong, and most of the imperial court before remaining forces regrouped south of the Yangtze River.
Who defeated the Song dynasty and when did it officially end?
Kublai Khan's Yuan forces defeated the Song dynasty after a long siege that included the Battle of Yamen on the Pearl River Delta in 1279. The seven-year-old emperor Zhao Bing committed suicide along with Prime Minister Lu Xiufu and approximately 1,300 royal clan members to mark the end of the dynasty.