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American Civil War: the story on HearLore | HearLore
— Ch. 1 · Origins And Secession —
American Civil War.
~7 min read · Ch. 1 of 7
On the 12th of April 1861, Confederate forces fired the first of 4,000 shells at Fort Sumter in Charleston, South Carolina. The war began four months after Abraham Lincoln won the presidential election on the 6th of November 1860. Seven Southern slave states responded to his victory by seceding from the United States and forming the Confederacy. Mississippi issued a declaration stating their position was thoroughly identified with slavery as the greatest material interest of the world. These cotton states included Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas, all of whose economies relied on slave labor. The political battle leading to secession focused on whether slavery would expand into Western territories destined to become new states. Congress had previously admitted new states in pairs to maintain a sectional balance in the Senate. Free states outstripped slave states in numbers of eligible voters for the House of Representatives. This free-versus-slave status became a critical issue for both regions. White Southern nationalism developed over preceding decades as another factor driving secession. Nationalists in the North refused to accept declarations of secession while Unionists in the South also rejected them. No foreign government ever recognized the Confederacy during its existence.
Mobilization And Society
The New York City draft riots erupted in July 1863 involving Irish immigrants who had been signed up as citizens to swell the vote of the city's Democratic political machine. Of the 168,649 men procured for the Union through the draft, 117,986 were substitutes leaving only 50,663 who were conscripted. In the North some 120,000 men evaded conscription while many fled to Canada. Another 280,000 soldiers deserted during the war and at least 100,000 Southerners deserted about 10 percent of the total. The Confederate Congress passed a draft law in April 1862 for men aged 18 to 35 with exemptions for overseers government officials and clergymen. European immigrants joined the Union Army in large numbers including 177,000 born in Germany and 144,000 in Ireland. About 50,000 Canadians served around 2,500 of whom were black. When the Emancipation Proclamation went into effect in January 1863 ex-slaves were energetically recruited to meet state quotas. States and local communities offered higher cash bonuses for white volunteers. Men selected in the draft could provide substitutes or pay commutation money until mid-1864. Families used the substitute provision to select which man should go into the army and which should stay home.
Naval Innovation And Blockade
On the 8th of March 1862 Virginia inflicted significant damage on the Union's wooden fleet but the next day the first Union ironclad arrived to challenge it in Chesapeake Bay. The resulting three-hour Battle of Hampton Roads proved ironclads were effective warships despite being a draw. The Confederacy scuttled Virginia to prevent its capture while the Union built many copies of Monitor. By early 1861 General Winfield Scott had devised the Anaconda Plan calling for blockade of the Confederacy to suffocate South into surrender. Lincoln adopted parts of the plan but opted for more active war strategy instead. In April 1861 Lincoln announced blockade of all Southern ports ending regular traffic since commercial ships could not get insurance. The South blundered by embargoing cotton exports before blockade was fully effective so they reversed decision too late. King Cotton was dead as South could export less than 10 percent of its cotton. The blockade shut down ten Confederate seaports with railheads that moved almost all cotton. By June 1861 warships were stationed off principal Southern ports and year later nearly 300 ships were in service. European merchant ships could not obtain insurance for their ships and transport leading them to cease docking in Confederate ports.
Eastern Theater Campaigns
On July 4 at Harper's Ferry Colonel Thomas J. Jackson assigned Jeb Stuart command of all cavalry companies of Army of Shenandoah. Jackson eventually commanded Army of Northern Virginia's cavalry earning nickname foot cavalry after marching 646 miles in 48 days during Valley Campaign. His 17,000 troops successfully engaged three Union armies comprising 52,000 men including those of Nathaniel P. Banks and John C. Frémont preventing reinforcement of Union offensive against Richmond. Johnston halted McClellan's advance at Battle of Seven Pines but he was wounded in battle allowing Robert E. Lee to assume his position of command. Lee and senior subordinates James Longstreet and Stonewall Jackson defeated McClellan in Seven Days Battles forcing retreat. During Northern Virginia Campaign Confederate forces registered another important military victory defeating twice number of combined enemy troops. Emboldened by Second Bull Run Confederate forces launched first invasion of North in Maryland Campaign when Lee led 45,000 Army of Northern Virginia troops across Potomac River into Maryland on September 5. Lincoln then restored Pope's troops to McClellan leading clash in Battle of Antietam near Sharpsburg on the 17th of September 1862 which proved bloodiest single day in both Civil War and US military history.
Western Theater Strategy
Ulysses S Grant led Union to victories in battles at Fort Henry on the 6th of February 1862 and Fort Donelson from February 11 to 16 1862 earning nickname Unconditional Surrender Grant. With these victories Union gained control of Tennessee and Cumberland Rivers while Nathan Bedford Forrest rallied nearly 4,000 Confederate troops to escape across Cumberland River. Nashville and central Tennessee fell to Union leading to attrition of local food supplies and livestock plus breakdown in social organization. Confederate general Leonidas Polk subsequently invaded Columbus Kentucky ending policy of neutrality turning state against Confederacy. Grant used river transport and Andrew Hull Foote's gunboats of Western Flotilla threatening Confederacy's Gibraltar of West in Columbus Kentucky. Although rebuffed at Belmont Grant cut off Columbus forcing retreat since Confederate forces lacked their gunboats opening Tennessee in March 1862. At Battle of Shiloh in Shiloh Tennessee April 1862 Confederate forces launched surprise attack pushing Union back to Tennessee River as night fell. Over that night Navy landed reinforcements allowing Grant counterattack resulting in decisive victory despite high number of casualties making it first in series of such battles. Albert Sidney Johnston considered finest Confederate general died before Lee emerged to assume command.
Diplomacy And Foreign Policy
In 1861 Southerners voluntarily embargoed cotton shipments hoping start economic depression in Europe forcing Britain enter war but this failed completely. Worse Europe turned to Egypt and India for cotton finding superior quality hindering South postwar recovery. Cotton diplomacy proved failure because Europe had surplus while 1860-62 crop failures made North grain exports critically important. It also helped turn European opinion against Confederacy saying King Corn more powerful than King Cotton since US grain increased from quarter to almost half British imports. Meanwhile war created jobs for arms makers ironworkers and ships transporting weapons. Lincoln administration initially struggled appeal to European public opinion explaining US not committed ending slavery emphasizing legal arguments about unconstitutionality secession. Confederate representatives focused struggle for liberty commitment free trade essential role cotton European economy. European aristocracy absolutely gleeful pronouncing American debacle proof entire experiment popular government had failed. By 1861 Union diplomats like Carl Schurz realized emphasizing war against slavery most effective moral asset swaying European public opinion. Seward concerned overly radical case reunification distress European merchants cotton interests even so supported widespread campaign public diplomacy. US minister Britain Charles Francis Adams proved adept convincing Britain not challenge Union blockade creating political liability supporting Confederacy.
Total War And Conclusion
At beginning of 1864 Lincoln made Grant commander all Union armies putting Maj Gen William Tecumseh Sherman command most western armies. Grant understood concept total war believing along with Lincoln and Sherman utter defeat Confederate forces economic base would end war. This was total war killing civilians injuring Confederacy capacity produce transport supplies needed continue war. Sherman at Grant direction seized provisions destroying homes farms railroads Grant said otherwise gone support secession rebellion exercising material influence hastening end. Grant devised coordinated strategy striking entire Confederacy multiple directions including Meade Benjamin Butler ordered move Lee near Richmond Franz Sigel attack Shenandoah Valley Sherman capture Atlanta march Atlantic Ocean George Crook William W Averell operate railroad supply lines West Virginia Nathaniel P Banks capture Mobile Alabama. Grant's army set out Overland Campaign intending draw Lee defense Richmond pinning down destroying Confederate army. Union army first attempted maneuver past Lee fighting several battles notably Wilderness Spotsylvania Cold Harbor resulting heavy losses both sides forcing Lee Confederates fall back repeatedly. At Battle Yellow Tavern Confederates lost Jeb Stuart while last significant battles raged around ten-month Siege Petersburg gateway Confederate capital Richmond. Confederates abandoned Richmond the 9th of April 1865 Lee surrendered Grant following Battle Appomattox Court House setting motion end war.
The American Civil War began on the 12th of April 1861 when Confederate forces fired at Fort Sumter in Charleston, South Carolina. Abraham Lincoln won the presidential election four months earlier on the 6th of November 1860 which triggered seven Southern slave states to secede.
How many men were conscripted for the Union Army during the American Civil War?
Of the 168,649 men procured through the draft only 50,663 were actually conscripted while 117,986 were substitutes. Approximately 120,000 men evaded conscription in the North and another 280,000 soldiers deserted during the war.
What was the outcome of the Battle of Hampton Roads in the American Civil War?
The three-hour Battle of Hampton Roads proved ironclads were effective warships despite ending as a draw between Virginia and Monitor. The Confederacy scuttled Virginia to prevent its capture while the Union built many copies of Monitor.
Which battle was the bloodiest single day in the American Civil War?
The Battle of Antietam near Sharpsburg on the 17th of September 1862 proved the bloodiest single day in both the Civil War and US military history. Lincoln restored Pope's troops to McClellan leading this clash after Lee led 45,000 Army of Northern Virginia troops into Maryland.
When did General Robert E. Lee surrender to Ulysses S Grant in the American Civil War?
Confederates abandoned Richmond on the 9th of April 1865 before Lee surrendered to Grant following the Battle Appomattox Court House. This event set the motion for the end of the war which had lasted from 1861 to 1865.