Sakhalin

• 1. Geography And Geology

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  The island of Sakhalin stretches 1,600 kilometers from north to south. It lies between the Sea of Okhotsk and the Sea of Japan. Two parallel mountain ranges run through its center. The Western Sakhalin Mountains reach Mount Ichara at 1,598 meters. The Eastern Sakhalin Mountains peak at Mount Lopatin with 3,000 feet elevation. Nearly two-thirds of the land is mountainous. Crystalline rocks appear at several capes along the coast. Cretaceous limestones containing giant ammonites exist at Dui on the west coast. Tertiary conglomerates and sandstones are found in many parts of the island. During the Miocene period, the climate was comparatively warm. Pliocene deposits contain mollusc fauna more Arctic than today's species. The island sits on the western edge of the Okhotsk plate where it contacts the Amur plate. This tectonic activity makes Sakhalin earthquake-prone. The northernmost point is Cape Elizabeth on the Schmidt Peninsula. Cape Crillon marks the southernmost tip.

• 2. Indigenous Peoples History

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  Humans lived on Sakhalin during the Neolithic Stone Age. Flint implements found at Dui and Kusunai number in great quantities. Polished stone hatchets similar to European examples appeared alongside primitive pottery decorated like Olonets designs. A later population familiar with bronze left traces in earthen walls and kitchen-middens on Aniva Bay. Indigenous people include the Ainu in the southern half, Oroks in the central region, and Nivkhs in the north. After Mongols conquered the Jin dynasty in 1234, they suffered raids by Nivkh and Udege peoples. In response, Mongols established an administration post at Nurgan in 1263. On the 30th of November 1264, the Mongols attacked the Ainu who resisted until subdued by 1308. They paid tribute to the Yuan dynasty at posts in Wuliehe, Nanghar, and Boluohe. From 1409 to 1411, the Ming established the Nurgan Regional Military Commission near Tyr ruins. Admiral Yishiha reached Sakhalin in 1413 during expeditions to the lower Amur. He granted Ming titles to a local chieftain. In 1431, assistant commander Alige brought marten pelts as tribute to Wuliehe post. Four other assistant commanders presented tribute in 1437. These posts were hereditary and passed down patrilineal lines. During tributary missions, headmen brought their sons who later inherited titles. The Qing dynasty sent soldiers across most parts of the island except the southern tip. By 1732, 6 hala, 18 gasban, and 148 households registered as tribute bearers in Sakhalin. Local native chiefs had daughters taken as wives by Manchu officials under Qing sanction. Today some 2,000 Nivkhs and 750 Oroks remain on the island.

• 3. Imperial Rivalries

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  The ownership of Sakhalin has been contested over the past millennium. China, Russia, and Japan all made claims at different times. In 1855, Russia and Japan signed the Treaty of Shimoda declaring nationals of both countries could inhabit the island. Russians lived in the north while Japanese settled in the south without clearly defined boundaries. Following the Second Opium War, Russia forced China to sign the Treaty of Aigun in 1858. This convention transferred all Chinese claims north of Heilongjiang and east of Ussuri to Russia. In 1857, Russians established a penal colony on Sakhalin. The island remained under shared sovereignty until the 1875 Treaty of Saint Petersburg. Japan surrendered its claims in exchange for northern Kuril Islands. In 1905, following the Russo-Japanese War, southern Sakhalin below the 50th parallel reverted to Japan. Russia retained the northern three-fifths. During the Siberian Intervention, Japan occupied northern parts from 1918 to 1925. They returned it to the Soviet Union after the Treaty of Beijing signed the 20th of January 1925. In August 1945, the Soviet Union invaded southern Sakhalin secretly planned at the Yalta Conference. Actual fighting continued until August 21 before most remaining Japanese units agreed to ceasefire by August 23. Soviets completed conquest of Karafuto on the 25th of August 1945. Japan renounced claims over southern Sakhalin and Kuril Islands in the Treaty of San Francisco in 1951 but maintains that four offshore islands administered by Russia were not subject to this renunciation.

• 4. Penal Colony Era

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  In 1857, Russians established a penal colony or katorga on Sakhalin. Tsar Alexander II approved Regulations of the Committee on Hard Labor on the 18th of April 1869 forming legal basis for the island as penal colony. The oldest settlement on Sakhalin Island was Due on Cape Douai which had the 1853 established Makaryevka coal mine. This facility was supported by Muravyovsky post now known as Korsakov at Aniva Bay. It hosted its first prisoner beginning in 1876. In 1890, author Anton Chekhov visited the penal colony spending three months there interviewing thousands of convicts and settlers for a census. He published his memoir Sakhalin Island documenting his journey. The 1897 census recorded population of 28,113 with 56.2% Russians, 8.4% Ukrainians, 7.0% Nivkh, 5.8% Poles, 5.4% Tatars, 5.1% Ainu, 2.82% Oroks, 0.95% Germans, 0.81% Japanese. Non-indigenous people lived mainly from agriculture or were convicts and exiles. The majority of Nivkh, Ainu and Japanese lived from fishing or hunting while Oroks lived mainly by livestock breeding reindeer. Since 1925 many Poles fled Soviet Russian persecution in north to then Japanese south.

• 5. Japanese Administration

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  South Sakhalin administered by Japan as Karafuto Prefecture had capital at Toyohara today Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk. A large number of migrants brought in from Korea populated the region. Between 1848 and 1902 American whaleships hunted bowhead gray and right whales off Sakhalin. On the 7th of June 1855 ship Jefferson wrecked on Cape Levenshtern during fog saving all hands plus 300 barrels whale oil. In August 1945 after repudiating Soviet-Japanese Neutrality Pact Soviet Union invaded southern Sakhalin. Soviet attack started the 11th of August 1945 few days before surrender of Japan. Soviet 56th Rifle Corps consisting of 79th Rifle Division 2nd Rifle Brigade 5th Rifle Brigade and 214 Armored Brigade attacked Japanese 88th Infantry Division. Although Red Army outnumbered Japanese three to one they advanced slowly due to strong resistance. It was not until November 113th Rifle Brigade and 365th Independent Naval Infantry Battalion landed on Tōro that Soviets broke defense line. Actual fighting continued until August 21. From August 22 to 23 most remaining Japanese units agreed ceasefire. Soviets completed conquest of Karafuto on the 25th of August 1945 occupying capital Toyohara. Of approximately 400,000 people mostly Japanese and Korean who lived on South Sakhalin in 1944 about 100,000 evacuated to Japan during last days war. Remaining 300,000 stayed behind some for several more years. While vast majority gradually repatriated between 1946 and 1950 tens of thousands remained in Soviet Union.

• 6. Modern Economy

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  Economy of Sakhalin relies primarily on oil gas exports coal mining forestry fishing. Limited quantities rye wheat oats barley vegetables grow there though growing season averages less than 100 days. Following collapse of Soviet Union in 1991 economic liberalization brought extensive petroleum exploration mining by large multinational corporations. Oil natural gas reserves contain estimated 14 billion barrels 2.2 km³ oil and 2,700 km³ 96 trillion cubic feet gas developed under production sharing agreements involving ExxonMobil Shell. In 1996 two large consortia Sakhalin I Sakhalin II signed contracts explore oil gas off northeast coast. Combined pre-project cost estimate US$21 billion doubled to $37 billion September 2006 triggering Russian governmental opposition. Cost includes estimated US$1 billion upgrade island infrastructure roads bridges waste management sites airports railways communications systems ports. Sakhalin I project managed by Exxon Neftegas completed production sharing agreement between consortium Russian Federation Sakhalin government. Russia building pipeline across Tatar Strait from Sakhalin Island to De-Kastri terminal on mainland. Resource loaded onto tankers for transport East Asian markets Japan South Korea China. Second consortium Sakhalin Energy Investment Company Ltd manages Sakhalin II project. It has completed first production sharing agreement with Russian Federation. Consortium will build two 800-km pipelines running from northeast island to Prigorodnoye Aniva Bay southern end. At Prigorodnoye consortium builds first liquefied natural gas plant built in Russia. Oil gas bound for East Asian markets. In June 2021 announced Russia aims make Sakhalin Island carbon neutral by 2025.