Roman Britain
In 55 BC, Julius Caesar landed on the coast of Kent with two legions and a small cavalry force. He intended to conquer Britain as part of his Gallic Wars but found the Britons had been overrun by Belgic tribes from across the Channel. The Roman Senate declared a twenty-day public holiday in Rome after Caesar returned with hostages and defeated local tribes. His second expedition in 54 BC involved a much larger army that coerced native kings into paying tribute. Despite these military successes, Caesar left no troops behind and established only client relationships. Archaeological evidence shows an increase in imported luxury goods in southeastern Britain during this period. Strabo later claimed that taxes on trade brought more annual revenue than any conquest could provide. Augustus planned invasions in 34, 27, and 25 BC but circumstances never favored them. The relationship between Britain and Rome settled into one of diplomacy and trade rather than direct rule.
Emperor Claudius launched a full-scale invasion in 43 AD with four legions to establish Britannia as a formal province. Aulus Plautius led the initial landing at Richborough in Kent while another division may have landed near Fishbourne in West Sussex. The Catuvellauni tribe was defeated in battles along the rivers Medway and Thames. Togodumnus died fighting but his brother Caratacus continued resistance elsewhere. Vespasian subdued the southwest while Cogidubnus was installed as a friendly king over several territories. By 47 AD, Romans held lands southeast of the Fosse Way. Control over Wales faced delays due to reverses and Boudica's uprising. Governor Gnaeus Julius Agricola expanded Roman territory as far as Caledonia by 84 AD. At the Battle of Mons Graupius, Tacitus estimated over ten thousand Caledonians died compared to about three hundred sixty Romans. This bloodbath concluded forty years of conquest that possibly saw between one hundred thousand and two hundred fifty thousand Britons killed.
Hadrian arrived in Britannia around 120 AD and directed construction of Hadrian's Wall close to the Stanegate frontier line. Aulus Platorius Nepos brought the Second Legion from Germany to undertake this work. The Antonine Wall was built around 142 AD during the reign of Antoninus Pius following military reoccupation of Scottish lowlands. Quintus Lollius Urbicus served as governor when the first Antonine occupation began. Brigantes revolted in 155-157 AD leading to troop movements southward. Within a year the wall was recaptured but abandoned by 163 or 164 AD. Large fort at Newstead remained operational until at least 180 AD. In 180 AD, Hadrian's Wall was breached by Picts killing the commanding officer there. Ulpius Marcellus won peace by 184 AD only to face mutiny from his own troops. Severan campaigns in 208-211 AD pushed north to River Tay before returning to York where the emperor died. Peace treaties were signed with Caledonians though little appeared achieved by invasion.
Dolaucothi gold mine in Wales was probably first worked by Roman army from about 75 AD using hydraulic mining methods described by Pliny the Elder. Water supplied by aqueducts stripped away soil to reveal bedrock veins attacked using fire-setting techniques. Wealden ironworking zone and Mendip Hills lead mines operated as private enterprises leased from government for fees. By mid-second century, British garrison reached fifty-three thousand soldiers requiring massive resource imports. Most important ports included London and Richborough while continental trade focused on Boulogne and Scheldt river sites. Red-gloss samian ware came from southern Gaul alongside olive oil from Spain and wine barrels. Britain exported metals like silver and gold plus some lead, iron and copper along with agricultural products. Up until mid-third century, Roman state payments exceeded extracted resources supporting large military force. Continental trade peaked late first century then declined due to reliance on local products and economic crises. Antonine Plague and Marcomannic Wars impacted economy from 165 AD onwards. Mid-fourth century saw vast quantities of grain exported to support northwestern continental Empire.
Around 197 AD, Severan reforms divided Britain into Britannia Superior and Britannia Inferior provinces. Early fourth century saw division into four provinces under vicarius direction: Maxima Caesariensis, Flavia Caesariensis, Britannia Prima, and Britannia Secunda. Diocese governed by vicarius based at Londinium while praetorian prefecture remained at Trier. Civilian authority separated from military command handed over to Dux Britanniarum by 314 AD. Governor assumed financial duties as procurators phased out during first three decades of fourth century. Fifth province Valentia attested later in fourth century created by Theodosius the Elder around 369 AD after Great Conspiracy quelling. Council of Arles in 314 included bishops Eborius of York, Restitutus of London, and Adelphius possibly Lincoln bishopric. Gerald of Wales placed capitals differently but modern scholars dispute his accounts placing Valentia beyond Hadrian's Wall. Common reconstruction places Maxima at Londinium, Prima west with Cirencester capital, Flavia north with Lincoln capital, Secunda north with York capital.
Druids were outlawed by Claudius yet Britons continued worshiping native Celtic deities like Ancasta conflated with Roman equivalents such as Mars Rigonemetos at Nettleham. Roman emperor worship widely recorded especially at military sites. Temple to Claudius founded at Camulodunum became one imposition leading to Boudica revolt. Pagans Hill Roman Temple existed peaceably into fifth century while Eastern cults like Mithraism grew popular toward occupation end. London Mithraeum exemplified mystery religion popularity among soldiery alongside Rudchester and Caernarfon Mithraea on Hadrian's Wall. Christian communities began appearing third and fourth centuries evidenced by small timber churches at Lincoln and Silchester plus baptismal fonts found at Icklingham and Richborough fort. Water Newton Treasure hoard contained early fourth-century Christian silver church plate from Lullingstone villa. Poundbury cemetery showed east-west oriented burials interpreted as early Christian burial ground though rites also common in pagan contexts. Pelagius born 354 AD originated belief labeled heresy teaching in Rome until death around 420 or 440 AD. Christianity legalized empire-wide by Constantine I in 313 AD then made state religion by Theodosius I in 391 AD.
Albinus crossed to Gaul in 195 AD where provinces sympathetic to him set up at Lugdunum before decisive battle with Severus. Albinus committed suicide after losing despite coming close to victory. Severus purged sympathizers and confiscated large tracts of land in Britain as punishment. Magnus Maximus raised revolt standard at Segontium in north Wales in 383 AD crossing English Channel holding much western empire fighting Picts and Scots successfully around 384 AD. Continental exploits required troops from Britain triggering raids settlement in north Wales by Irish. Rule ended 388 AD but not all British troops returned stretching Empire resources along Rhine Danube. Barbarian attacks increased mid-fourth century including Saxons east Scoti west combined with garrison dissension on Hadrian's Wall leaving Roman Britain prostrate in 367 AD. Invaders overwhelmed entire western northern regions sacking cities during crisis called Great Conspiracy. Theodosius the Elder settled crisis from 368 AD string military civil reforms crossing Bononia marching Londinium dealing invaders making base. Amnesty promised deserters enabling regarrison abandoned forts retaking Hadrian's Wall restoring order year end.
Traditional historian view suggested widespread economic decline beginning fifth century though archaeological evidence tells different story. More opulent fewer urban houses existed ending new public building some abandonment existing ones exception defensive structures. Dark earth deposits indicated increased horticulture within urban precincts. Many buildings changed use destroyed believed later thought than had been thought. Villas like Chedworth Great Casterton Rutland Hucclecote Gloucestershire received new mosaic floors suggesting limited economic problems patchy suffering decay before abandonment 5th century. Saint Patrick indicates villas still occupied until at least 430 AD. Verulamium Cirencester saw exceptional new buildings going up period. Urban life grew less intense fourth quarter 4th century coins minted 378-388 very rare indicating combination economic decline diminishing troop numbers payment problems unstable conditions Magnus Maximus usurpation 383-87. Coinage circulation increased 390s never attained earlier decades levels copper coins very rare after 402 though minted silver gold hoards indicate presence province even if not spent. By 407 few new Roman coins circulating by 430 likely coinage medium exchange abandoned mass-produced wheel thrown pottery ended approximately same time rich continued metal glass vessels poor made humble grey ware leather wooden containers.
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Common questions
When did Julius Caesar first land on the coast of Kent?
Julius Caesar landed on the coast of Kent in 55 BC. He returned to Rome with hostages and defeated local tribes before declaring a twenty-day public holiday.
Who led the Roman invasion of Britain in 43 AD?
Emperor Claudius launched the full-scale invasion in 43 AD while Aulus Plautius led the initial landing at Richborough in Kent. The Catuvellauni tribe was defeated along the rivers Medway and Thames during this campaign.
What year was Hadrian's Wall constructed near the Stanegate frontier line?
Hadrian arrived in Britannia around 120 AD and directed construction of Hadrian's Wall close to the Stanegate frontier line. Aulus Platorius Nepos brought the Second Legion from Germany to undertake this work.
Which gold mine in Wales was worked by the Roman army starting about 75 AD?
The Dolaucothi gold mine in Wales was probably first worked by the Roman army from about 75 AD using hydraulic mining methods described by Pliny the Elder. Water supplied by aqueducts stripped away soil to reveal bedrock veins attacked using fire-setting techniques.
When did Christianity become the state religion of the Roman Empire?
Christianity was legalized empire-wide by Constantine I in 313 AD then made state religion by Theodosius I in 391 AD. Christian communities began appearing third and fourth centuries evidenced by small timber churches at Lincoln and Silchester plus baptismal fonts found at Icklingham and Richborough fort.